The life of a plant, like that of any other living organism, is a complex set of interrelated processes; the most significant of them, as is known, is the exchange of substances with the environment. The environment is the source from which the plant draws food materials, then processes them in its body, creating the same substances as those that make up the body of the plant - the assimilation of substances drawn from the environment, their assimilation takes place. Simultaneously with this process, the destruction of the constituent parts of the body takes place in the body; decomposing them into simpler ones. This opposite process is called dissimilation. Assimilation, dissimilation, inextricably linked with them the intake of substances from the environment and the release into the environment of unnecessary, waste - all this is the metabolism. Consequently, metabolic phenomena closely link the plant organism with the environment. This connection is twofold. First, the plant is dependent on the environment. The environment must contain all the materials necessary for the life of the plant. Lack, especially the absence of one or another category of food materials should lead to a slowdown or even cessation of life phenomena, to death. Secondly, by absorbing nutrients from the environment and releasing into the environment the products of its vital activity (for example, in the form of falling leaves, dead surface layers of the bark, etc.), the plant changes its environment. Consequently, not only does the plant depend on the environment, but the environment is always to some extent dependent on the plants.

Changes in the environment by plants are associated not only with the introduction of metabolic products into it, but also with the physical work that the plant performs. When the roots of a plant penetrate the soil, they do the mechanical work of breaking up or locally compacting the substrate. The work performed by the plant is not limited to mechanical action on the substrate. In essence, all the physiological functions of a plant represent certain forms of work. This leads to the idea of ​​the relationship between plants and the environment in another way: all work is associated with the expenditure of energy. But energy, as you know, "does not disappear and is not created again." Therefore, if a plant consumes energy, then, obviously, it must receive it from somewhere.

The source of energy for plants containing chlorophyll is the radiant energy of light, due to which the plant builds organic matter containing, as it were, canned energy. In plants that do not have chlorophyll, such as fungi, the source of energy is organic food, i.e., either organic matter itself created by a green plant, or the same, but in a form already modified by other organisms.

The energy that enters plants in one form or another undergoes complex changes in it, eventually being released into the environment. It can be said that the connection between the plant and the environment is not limited to the exchange and transformation of substances - parallel to this, energy exchange takes place.

The life environment of a plant is heterogeneous; many components that are closely related to each other can be distinguished in its composition. Each of the elements of the environment that affects the body is called an environmental factor. The variety of environmental factors can be grouped into two categories: biotic factors and abiotic factors.

Introduction

ecological synanthropic plant

In the context of increasing technogenic loads, the sanitary and hygienic role of urban spaces covered with vegetation is a powerful tool for neutralizing the harmful effects of technogenic pollution for the urban population. Natural, landscaped areas, as well as water areas, affect the microclimatic characteristics of the urban environment, including retaining tens of tons of dust, concentrating heavy metals in leaves, participating in the formation of temperature and humidity regimes, the chemical composition of air: they biotransform and disperse hundreds of thousands of tons of pollutants enrich the air with oxygen. They affect the speed of air flow, the level of insolation of surfaces at ground level, buildings and structures, and also reduce the noise load from cars and other sources.

In the flora of any city, one can distinguish species that have formed in the process of long evolution in a given region - local (aboriginal) and allochthonous species, i.e. entered the area from other parts of the world. If this happened relatively recently, then such species are called adventive, or alien, new settlers, aliens. The ratio of native (local) and adventitious (alien) species in cities develops with a clear advantage in favor of the latter. Indeed, the majority of autochthonous plant species are expelled from the flora already when cities are founded - when forests are cleared, territories are cleared for settlement, etc. Subsequently, it is difficult for them to return to the cities - urban conditions are too different from those familiar to the local flora. Adventive species are pouring into cities in wide streams, since it is here that the intersections of the main routes of anthropochore distribution of plants are concentrated.

Vegetation on the streets of cities (mainly arboreal) is usually considered from the point of view of improving the urban environment for humans, both hygienically and aesthetically. In order to successfully grow plants in the city and take full advantage of their beneficial properties, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of their habitat conditions.

The specifics of the living conditions of plants in the city

In an urbanized area, the habitat of plants differs significantly from the natural one. The most important features of the urban environment for plants:

* severe air pollution in cities;

* the formation of a specific "urban wind";

* some decrease in the intensity of solar radiation in the city;

* change in the light regime of plants due to night lighting;

* an increase in the average air temperature, the formation of a kind of "heat dome" over the city;

* weakening of frosts and lengthening of the period with positive temperatures;

* decrease in the absolute and relative humidity of the air, which is probably the result of the emergence of a "heat dome";

* transformation of urban soils that are mixed, covered with a "cultural layer", compacted, dried up, enriched with salts and heavy metals, herbicides, pesticides, have high acidity, etc.;

* change in thermal and dynamic regimes of ground and surface waters;

* the formation of "anthropogenic relief" (buildings, structures), as a result of which the quantitative characteristics of a number of other environmental factors change and even specific plant habitats are created;

* amplification of the intensity of electromagnetic fields, vibration and the action of some other physical factors;

* direct human impact on the composition and condition of vegetation.

The formation of the flora and vegetation of urban areas occurs mainly spontaneously. However, the knowledge of the mechanisms and patterns of urban florogenesis can be used for the systematic formation and, accordingly, the improvement of the urban environment.

As part of the urban flora (urban flora), two groups can be distinguished:

* natural flora - develops according to the laws of natural selection, is not exposed to human influence or experiences a spontaneous, unintended impact; representatives of this group live in natural communities preserved within the city limits, as well as in various types of synanthropic (created or modified as a result of human activities) habitats;

artificial flora - modeled by man and subjected to artificial selection (flora of cultivated plants that are able to develop normally only with human intervention).

"Natural" urban floras (NEFs) are currently the subject of numerous studies. Their study makes it possible to reveal a number of specific features.

One of the most important characteristics of the EHF is an indicator of species richness. The absolute value of this indicator largely depends on the location of the city, its age and the size of the territory it occupies. For Kazan, for example, these are 1003 species, for Izhevsk - 1099, for Vyatka (Kirov) 899 species, etc. It is interesting that a comparison of the abundance indicators of the EHF with the floras of natural areas corresponding in area indicates that the urban floras turn out to be richer than the calculated values ​​obtained using the mathematical apparatus and taking into account botanical and geographical patterns (Ilminskikh 1984, 1993). Growth of floristic richness of urban areas

has several reasons. 1) The position of ancient cities in relation to physiographic regions, as a rule, turns out to be borderline (i.e., at the junction of 2, 3, and sometimes more plant, soil, climatic and other zones). This was objectively determined by the need for a convenient location of cities for the implementation of two most important functions - defense and trade and crafts. This border area, called the ecotone, is a mosaic of conditions corresponding to the contact zones, so the biodiversity here will be significantly higher than in any individual zone. A classic example is Tsaritsyn-Volgograd, which was created and is now located at the junction of several physical-geographic regions and phytochoria.

2) Human activity plays an important role in the formation of the flora of urbanized areas, which leads not only to the destruction of natural ecosystems, but also to the creation of new types of habitats that were not previously found in the area. Such habitats, as well as the flora and vegetation that form under these conditions, are called synanthropic (from "syn" - together, "anthropos" - a person).

synanthropic vegetation- These are secondary types of vegetation, which are human-created communities or various stages of restorative successions associated with human activity.

Synanthropic vegetation includes the following variants of plant communities:

* Pasture vegetation (from Latin "pascularis" - pasture) vegetation of pastures and intensively trampled

plots. Species-indicators of such communities: Canadian small-flowered, highlander bird, large plantain, etc.

* Segetal vegetation (from the Latin "segetalis" - growing among the bread) - a set of populations of species of segetal weeds. In the conditions of the city, these plants are common inhabitants of flower beds, front gardens and other areas occupied by green spaces. Segetal communities are largely autonomous from the culture due to the bank of seeds and the bank of vegetative rudiments.

According to the type of life strategy, segetal species are, as a rule, false explerents. They are distinguished by high seed productivity, and often also by intensive vegetative reproduction, but they have a weak competitive ability and do not differentiate niches. False explerents, unlike true ones, are not vagrant plants that inhabit disturbed habitats, but are stored in the soil in the form of a seed bank and under different crops change only the quantitative ratio, sometimes in the absence of competition they give an outbreak of abundance. Characteristic types: bread (upturned, zhmindovidny, white), black henbane, dope, garden purslane, chicken millet, bristles, types of oxalis, etc.

* Ruderal vegetation (from the Latin "rudus" - crushed stone plant debris) - communities of regularly or periodically disturbed habitats, as a rule, of anthropogenic origin (landfills, city wastelands, abandoned construction sites, etc.). Traditionally, ruderal vegetation includes communities of the first stages of succession with the dominance of representatives of the family. Hazeweed, Compositae, Cruciferous, some cereals. Ruderal vegetation is characterized by the predominance of species with wide ecological amplitudes (eurytopes) and large areas covering several continents (cosmopolitan species, or ubiquists). In the modern urban landscape, ruderal vegetation plays an important role, opening the processes of self-restoration of vegetation, preventing the development of erosion. The ruderal vegetation contains many valuable medicinal plants and honey plants, as well as species providing a high number of entomophagous insects (eryngium, chicory, curly thistle, five-lobed motherwort, Tatar lettuce, etc.). Typical species: cocklebur cyclaena, cockleburs, numerous species of the genera mari and quinoa, Tatar Molokan, etc.

3) The processes of extinction of some taxa associated with anthropogenic disturbance of their habitats are compensated by immigration. Among the adventitious plants of our cities, species of American origin predominate (about a third of the species), a significant part of the species comes from the Mediterranean, Southern Europe, Asia Minor, Iran, and India (Burda, 1991).

The proportion of immigrant plants (adventive plants) in the composition of urban flora is constantly growing and can reach several tens of percent, and the rate and scale of adventization often significantly exceed the rate of extinction of local species.

Taxon gains greatly outweigh losses, and consequently the diversity of urban flora is increased. For 50-70 years, the species composition of urban floras has been updated by 40-50%. The composition of endangered and immigrating species in different cities is different, and the similarity of urban floras does not increase as a result of these processes.

Adventitious plants not only become competitors of local plants in the use of environmental resources, but also affect the microevolution of plants in an urbanized area. Alien plants interbreed with native species, forming hybrids with dominance, as a rule, of alien traits. The example of such relationship of an adventitious species has become a classic example: brittle willow with a local species of white willow, which led to the emergence of widespread hybrid forms.

4) An important factor in increasing the richness of urban and generally anthropogenic floras are micro- and macroevolutionary changes. In technogenic landscapes characterized by air pollution, abnormal soil composition and other features, there is a strong direct impact on the genetic apparatus of plants, which leads to the appearance of numerous terats (morphological deviations). Modern evolutionary theory considers terates as promising macromutations based on abnormal growth, aggregation, and organ fusion. Obviously, it is much easier for macromutants to survive in human-disturbed habitats under conditions of reduced competition or in the absence of it. There is even a hypothesis that the entire history of angiosperms began precisely with macromutants that survived in the composition of pioneer vegetation.

5) Introduction has now become a very powerful factor in "urban" florogenesis. More precisely, recently the consequences of introduction measures have become obvious, which sometimes began in very distant times. Many exotic plants, superior in decorative qualities or other economic characteristics to local species, are now propagated in large numbers and in a wide range. Having "accommodated" in the beds of introduction nurseries or in flower beds, these plants eventually go beyond the boundaries of cultivated lands and spread over different types of disturbed habitats. Some introduced plants exist under these conditions in a suppressed state for many generations, until, finally, forms adapted to the conditions of this area are developed. This may be followed by a spasmodic invasion of the introduced species into the local flora with the displacement of a number of its species. It becomes obvious that introduced species can become dangerous weeds. In the conditions of the city of Volgograd, some trees and shrubs of American origin actively introduced into the culture behave in this way; American maple, lanceolate ash, bush amorph, and small-leaved elm, which is a native of East Asia.

In general, the following main patterns can be distinguished in the formation of the EHF:

1. Urban floras, as they transform, acquire more and more pronounced thermoxeric features to the detriment of their zonal features. The floras of cities are saturated with species from more southern regions, which, as it were, corresponds to their movement in latitude by 5-10 degrees to the south (by 50-100 km), which is quite consistent with the thermoxeric nature of the urban environment.

2. The number of species of flowering plants is increasing, while the number of spore and gymnosperms is decreasing. The number of species increases in thermoxerophilous families (Fabaceae, Marevaceae, Buckwheat) and decreases in thermophobic families (Sedge, Clove, Norichaceae, Ranunculaceae, Rose, Willow).

3. The value in the composition of the flora of the 10 most

species-rich families, i.e. most of the urban flora species belong to a smaller number of families than the zonal ones. This feature is an indicator of the deterioration of the quality of the environment.

4. The increase in the role of adventitious plants occurs mainly due to natives from the American continent, East Asia, the Mediterranean and more continental regions of Eurasia, the proportion of plants from cosmopolitan and European areas is much less.

5. There is a decrease in the positions of hemicryptophytes, chamephytes and hygrophytes, and an increase in the positions of therophytes and phanerophytes.

6. Entomophilous species reduce their role due to the strengthening of the positions of auto- and anemophilous species.

The total result of all florogenetic processes occurring in the EHF is the emergence of completely new formations on the site of native floristic complexes, including the remains of transformed native floras, migrants from other floristic regions, and species of anthropogenic origin. In their extreme expression, these formations are called anthropogenic complexes. But more often there are transitional formations from native floras to anthropogenic complexes.

"Artificial" floras, including cultivated plants, are formed in accordance with human needs and are influenced by many subjective factors, however, zonal physical-geographical and specific urban conditions cannot but affect the composition of this group.

The study of the "artificial" floras of the city of Volgograd, especially ornamental plants, has not yet been completed. More or less detailed data have been published only for the VNIALMI dendrological collection (Trees and shrubs… 1984). This collection in some years reached 600 species and varieties.

However, in a wide urban gardening, despite the existing recommendations of scientists (Recommendations ... 1987), a significantly smaller number of species and forms are used. According to our data, there are about 90 species, among which 13 species are conifers, and the rest are deciduous angiosperms. Dominant among the flowering woody representatives of this family. Rosaceae (28 species and 17 genera) and Legumes (7 species and 6 genera), including many flowering plants. However, in terms of the number of individuals of one species in urban plantings (including in the central part of the city), the small-leaved elm almost completely dominates. So, on the boulevard along V.I. Lenin, almost 50% of the individuals belong to this plant, which clearly indicates an insufficiently thought-out urban landscaping, which should not only meet high aesthetic standards, but also fully fulfill its sanitary and hygienic purpose.

Life originated on Earth approximately 3.7 billion years ago, according to another source, about 4.1 billion years ago. Development continues to this day. According to all assumptions, in the future, life will continue, adapting to the environment, and the presence or absence of a person will not be able to interrupt it.

Australian scientists have discovered signs of life on land, and they are 3.5 billion years old. Their findings confirmed that life originated in fresh water, and not in salty springs. Scientists have paid attention to these facts and are looking for confirmation of them on other continents.

Basic types of life

The main living environments are:

Each of the environments has its own characteristics and contains various organisms that live, reproduce and evolve.

Ground-air environment

This environment represents all the diversity of plant and animal life on Earth. The development of organic life on land allowed the emergence of soil. Then came the development of plants, forests, steppes, tundra and various animals adapting to different habitats. As a result of the further evolution of the organic world, life spread to all the upper shells of the Earth - the hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere. All living things evolved and adapted to sharp fluctuations in temperature and different habitats. Warm-blooded and cold-blooded representatives of animal fauna, various birds and insects arose. In the ground-air environment, plants have adapted to various growing conditions. Some like light warm areas, others grow in shade and humidity, and still others survive in low temperatures. The diversity of this environment is represented by the diversity of life in it.

Water environment

Parallel to the development of the land-air environment, the development of the aquatic world also went on.

The aquatic environment is represented by all the water bodies that exist on our planet, ranging from oceans and seas to lakes and streams. 95% of the Earth's surface belongs to the aquatic environment.

Various giant inhabitants of the aquatic environment changed and adapted under the waves of evolution, adapted to the environment and took on the form that most increases the survival of populations. The sizes have decreased, areas of distribution of different types of their coexistence have shared. The diversity of life in the water surprises and delights. The temperature in the aquatic environment is not subject to such sharp fluctuations as in the ground-air environment, and even in the coldest water bodies it does not drop below +4 degrees Celsius. Not only fish and animals live in the water, the water also abounds with various algae. Only at great depths they are absent, where eternal night reigns, there is a completely different development of organisms.

soil habitat

Soil refers to the top layer of the earth. A mixture of various soil types with rocks, the remains of living organisms, forms fertile soil. There is no light in this environment, they live in it, or rather grow: seeds and spores of plants, roots of trees, shrubs, grasses. It also contains small algae. The earth is home to bacteria, animals and fungi. These are its main inhabitants.

The body as a habitat

Symbiosis (living together) can also be added to organisms.

The symbiosis of plants and animals does not oppress the owner, but acts as a partner in life. Symbiotic relationships allow certain types of plants and animals to survive. Symbiosis is the interval between union and fusion of organisms.

Performed by: Artemiev Ivan Group 2 "G"

Habitat.

Habitat - a set of specific abiotic and biotic conditions in which a given individual, population or species lives, a part of nature that surrounds living organisms and has a direct or indirect effect on them. From the environment, organisms receive everything necessary for life and excrete metabolic products into it. The term is often considered synonymous environment. The environment of each organism is composed of many elements of inorganic and organic nature and elements introduced by man and his production activities. At the same time, some elements may be partially or completely indifferent to the body, others are necessary, and still others have a negative effect.

Untouched by man habitat for many plants and animals

Ecological factors as elements of the environment.

The abiotic environment (environmental factors) is a set of conditions of the inorganic environment that affect the body. (Light, temperature, wind, air, pressure, humidity, etc.)

The biotic environment (environmental factors) is a set of influences of the vital activity of some organisms on others. (Influence of plants and animals on other members of the biogeocenosis)

Anthropogenic (anthropic) factors are all forms of activity of human society that change nature as the habitat of living organisms or directly affect their life.

conditions of existence.

Conditions of existence are those environmental factors that are vital for a certain type of organisms. The minimum without which existence is impossible. These include, for example, air, moisture, soil, as well as light and heat. These are the first conditions. In contrast, there are other factors that are not so vital. For example, wind or atmospheric pressure.

conditions of the aquatic environment.

First of all, one of the most important conditions is the chemical composition of the aquatic environment. It is different in different reservoirs. For example, the salt regime of small lakes is 0.001% salt. In fresh large water bodies - up to 0.05%. Marine - 3.5%. In saline continental lakes, the salt level reaches more than 30%. With an increase in salinity, the fauna becomes poorer. Water bodies are known where there are no living organisms.

plant habitat conditions.

Plant habitat conditions are also determined by many factors: the composition of the soil, the presence of lighting, temperature fluctuations. If the plant is aquatic - the conditions of the aquatic environment. Of the vital ones - the presence of nutrients in the soil, natural watering and irrigation (for cultivated plants). Many of the plants are tied to certain climatic zones. In other areas, they are not able to survive, much less reproduce and produce offspring.

soil environment conditions.

For many plants and animals, the soil habitat is relevant. Environmental conditions depend on several factors. These include climatic zones, temperature changes, chemical and physical composition of the soil. On land, as well as on water, one thing is good for some, another is good for others.

Habitat.

Habitat (habitat) - a set of biotic, abiotic and anthropogenic (if any) environmental factors in any particular territory or water area, which is formed on the site of the primary complex of abiotic factors - an ecotope. The habitat of a species or population is an important component of his/her ecological niche. In relation to terrestrial animals, the term is considered synonymous with the concepts of station (species habitat) and biotope (community habitat).

Habitat (ecological niche)- a set of specific abiotic and biotic conditions in which a given individual, population or species lives, a part of nature that surrounds living organisms and has a direct or indirect effect on them. Habitat (ecological niche), often overlaps with the term "range" - the geographical distribution of a biological species. For example, a brown bear. Habitat (ecological niche) - forests. Range - wherever there are such forests (Europe, Asia, North America). From the environment, organisms receive everything necessary for life and excrete metabolic products into it. The term is often considered synonymous environment. The environment of each organism is composed of many elements of inorganic and organic nature and elements introduced by man and his production activities. At the same time, some elements may be partially or completely indifferent to the body, others are necessary, and still others have a negative effect.

There are natural and artificial (man-made) habitats. Natural habitats are mainly divided into land-air, soil, water and intraorganism. Separate properties and elements of the environment that affect organisms are called environmental factors. All environmental factors can be divided into three large groups:

It is also possible to single out the following components of the environment: natural bodies of the environment, hydro-environment, air space of the environment, anthropogenic bodies, the field of radiation and gravitation of the environment.

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