Formal observation. Classification of observation method II. Conducting surveillance
Observation is a method of collecting primary sociological information, based on the visual and auditory perception of information relating to the object being studied and significant from the point of view of their recording and registration. Observation as a method of collecting sociological information is used quite widely. An important feature of sociological observation is that it is a method of direct visual perception of the object being studied. This provides the following benefits:
- observation allows us to record the characteristics of people’s behavior not in their memories and interpretations, but directly at the moment of its manifestation;
- observation makes it possible to obtain data regardless of both the respondent’s ability to describe his behavior in words and whether he wants to say anything at all about his behavior.
The advantages of sociological observation as a method of collecting information is the absence of mediating links between the researcher and the subjects, that is, the unconditional presence of direct contact. This makes it possible to obtain not only objective, but also operational information. Observation helps to more accurately and broadly understand the meaning of the actions and behavior of those observed in certain situations, to understand the essence of their reactions to ongoing events.
Let's consider the main types of sociological observation. This method of collecting sociological information can be classified according to the degree of formalization of the procedure, the position of the observer, the conditions of the organization, and the regularity of the procedure.
Standardized observation is a method of cognition in which the researcher, having determined in advance which elements of the situation being studied are of greatest importance to the researcher, focuses his attention on them. A standardized test is used to verify results obtained by other methods or to refine the results. It can serve as the basis for both collecting information to describe the subject of research and for testing hypotheses.
Non-standardized observation is a method of collecting sociological information in which the elements of the process to be studied are not determined in advance; most often this approach is used at the start of research work in order to understand the problem situation.
Depending on the position of the observer in relation to the object of study, a distinction is made between non-involved and included observation. In non-participant observation, the researcher is outside the object being studied. He does not get involved in the course of events and does not ask questions. It is used to describe the social situation in which the event of interest to the sociologist takes place. With the help of non-participant observation, facts of overt behavior are recorded. The presence of an observer can have a corrective effect on the object of observation. This is the main disadvantage of this type of observation.
Involved observation is an observation in which the researcher is, to one degree or another, included in the object being studied and, being in direct contact with the observed, takes part in their activities. Participant observation is divided into hidden (incognito) and open. The main conditions for conducting participant observation are the direct participation of the observer in the work activities of the team being surveyed; neutral attitude to current events; personal qualities of the observer - contact, friendliness, restraint. Participant observation requires a certain period of adaptation of the observer to the team. The adaptation period usually lasts from 4-5 days to 2-3 weeks and depends on the personal qualities of the observer, his gender and age.
Types of surveillance
According to the level of formation of the observation procedure itself:
Standardized;
Non-standardized.
According to the conditions for organizing observation:
Field and laboratory;
Direct and indirect.
Depending on the position of the observer relative to the observed object:
Included;
Not included.
By frequency:
Systematic, episodic, random
51. Sociometric research: possibilities of use and principles of organization.
A sociometric procedure may aim to:
a) measuring the degree of cohesion-disunity in the group;
b) identification of “sociometric positions,” i.e., the relative authority of group members on the basis of sympathy and antipathy, where the “leader” of the group and the “rejected” are at the extreme poles;
c) detection of intragroup subsystems, cohesive formations, which may have their own informal leaders at their head.
The use of sociometry makes it possible to measure the authority of formal and informal leaders to regroup people in teams so as to reduce tension in the team that arises due to the mutual hostility of some group members. The sociometric technique is carried out using a group method; its implementation does not require much time (up to 15 minutes). It is very useful in applied research, especially in work to improve relationships in a team. But it is not a radical way to resolve intra-group problems, the causes of which should be sought not in the likes and dislikes of group members, but in deeper sources.
The reliability of the procedure depends primarily on the correct selection of sociometry criteria, which is dictated by the research program and preliminary acquaintance with the specifics of the group.
The general scheme of actions for sociometric research is as follows. After setting the research objectives and selecting measurement objects, the main hypotheses and provisions regarding possible criteria for surveying group members are formulated. There cannot be complete anonymity here, otherwise sociometry will be ineffective. The experimenter’s requirement to reveal their likes and dislikes often causes internal difficulties among the respondents and manifests itself in some people in their reluctance to participate in the survey. When sociometric questions or criteria are selected, they are recorded on a special card or offered orally in an interview style. Each member of the group is obliged to answer them, choosing certain members of the group depending on their greater or lesser inclination, their preference over others, likes or, conversely, antipathies, trust or distrust, etc.
52. SOCIOMETRIC CRITERIA
The sociometric criterion is the criterion by which the structure of relations between group members is established.
Sociometric criterion questions that ask you to select one or more group members for joint activities. From 1 to ¾.
The criteria must be precise. Those.:
- Who would you entrust with the distribution of reports?
-Who would you go on a trip with? And etc.
Types of sociometric criteria
1. -Communicative (who would be invited)
- Gnostic (whoever invites you)
2. - Official (with whom would you complete the project)
- Informal (whom you would invite to another)
53. As part of the online survey, relevant are two types of research data analysis: - sociometry/ sociometric analysis and - categorical analysis. Sociometry / Sociometric analysis The method of sociometry (from the Latin socius - comrade, companion, accomplice; metrim - measurement) as a method of data analysis was developed in the USA by psychologist J. Moreno in 1934.
Sociometry refers to socio-psychological tests and allows you to measure interpersonal relationships, intra-group connections and hierarchies in small social groups, that is, real-life formations where people are brought together and united by some common characteristic (for example, a work team, a student group, etc. .).
Sociometry allows you to identify leaders and outsiders, measure the authority of formal and informal leaders, determine the socio-psychological climate in a group, identify the presence of conflict, as well as value orientations.
Attention! Sociometry is effective in groups of no more than 30 people.
Sociometry. Sequence of actions The procedure of the method under consideration is based on the so-called sociometric survey, which consists of the following stages:
1. Preparation: The researcher becomes familiar with the various characteristics of the team and determines what data he wants to obtain.
2. The researcher establishes the content and number of sociometric criteria. The criterion looks like a question that is asked to the group.
Group members make positive or negative choices regarding other group members, thus revealing their likes and dislikes.
The criterion is formulated in such a way as to encourage a person to give preference to people in his group on any issue.
For example: “Which member of your group would you prepare a joint project with?”, “Which colleague would you invite to your birthday first?” etc.
3. Conducting a survey. It is better to conduct the survey in teams that have experience in joint activities, as a result of which certain stable relationships have already emerged between its members. 4. Sociometry and matrix. Information processing and data interpretation: based on the participants’ responses, a sociometric matrix is filled in - a table that presents the distribution of individual choices.
Observation is a purposeful and systematic perception of a social phenomenon, the features of which, appropriately classified and coded, are recorded by the researcher. Registration forms and methods can be different: a form or observation diary, a photo or film camera, video equipment, etc.
Formalized, or standardized, observation involves the detailed development of a program and methodological procedures:
- defining the goals and objectives of observation;
- identification of the problem, object of observation;
- determination of the characteristics being studied and their indicators available for external observation and registration;
- determining the required number of observations from a variety of possible ones (sampling procedures);
- development of registration documents to record observed characteristics (observation cards, protocol forms, etc.);
- instructions to observers regarding the method of observation
- methods of data processing and analysis. Formalization of the observation procedure is possible in cases where the observer takes an outside position when studying phenomena that are open to visual perception.
In industrial sociology, the observation method is used to study the costs of working time, interactions between members of primary teams, production meetings, compliance with the work regime, queues in canteens, communication between workers and representatives of the administration on reception days, etc.
The document for registering an observation is a detailed “Observation Sheet”, which includes data on the place and time of observations: workshop No.., section.., date.., number of workers.., number of observations.., shift.., purpose of observation .., walk route... Next comes a table, the rows of which contain the names of the workers, and the columns include a list of observed characteristics.
Observation of a large audience is carried out by several persons who adhere to the same instructions. The preparation of a protocol for recording observation data is preceded not only by the development of a general concept, but also by repeated non-standardized observations at different objects.
Note-taking in the field or simple unstructured and non-participant observation can be done with code words or symbols, which are entered into a notebook at the first opportunity in order to decipher the notes later. Sometimes when recording, a tape recorder is used, from which the text is transcribed directly into the computer. Notes can be made during observation or at the end of the working day.
Structured observation, which involves strict note-taking techniques, uses protocol forms, lined by observation points, with codes for events and situations, complementing indicator cards. The frequency and intensity of events in this case are recorded using ranking scales.
The reliability of observation results is ensured by testing the developed instruments (aerobatics), special training of observers and monitoring the quality of their work.
Approbation of documents prepared for recording observation results consists of conducting trial observations and analyzing the records made, as well as the impressions of observers, registration difficulties, unclear terms, psychological obstacles, etc. In addition, the observation results of several observers of the same situation are compared. Analysis of the reasons for discrepancies in results helps to identify shortcomings in the design of cards for recording observations and in the organization of observations.
Depending on the goals and objectives of the sociological observation being carried out, the position and role of the observer in the situation being studied, the degree of formalization of the research procedure, and the conditions of its organization, several types of observation are distinguished. The main ones are as follows.
1) Non-standardized (unstructured) observation is a way of studying social phenomena and processes in which only the object of observation is defined, but the researcher does not determine in advance exactly what elements of the process, event, situation, etc. being studied. he will watch. This type of observation is most often used at the initial stage of sociological research in order to determine the problem situation.
2) Standardized (structured) observation is a method of collecting empirical sociological information in which not only the object and subject of research, but also the composition of the elements of the process being studied, which are most essential for achieving the intended goals and solving the problems facing the researcher, are determined in advance ( research team). It can be used as the main method of collecting information to accurately describe the subject of research and as a way to verify, clarify, and correct results obtained by other methods. Its application requires good prior knowledge of the subject of research and preliminary standardization of the categories used in the process of observation, identification of factors to be observed and their reflection in the form of tables, protocols, cards, technical means used in the process of sociological observation. Only compliance with all these conditions makes standardized observation controlled and effective.
3) Non-involved (external) observation is a method of sociological research in which the researcher is outside the object being studied, studying it as if from the outside. In this case, the observer is not included in the course of events, does not participate in them, does not ask questions of the observed individuals, as if removed from them, simply registering what is happening from the angle of the goals and objectives of the study. It is used to describe the social situation in which the events of interest to the observer occur.
4) Participant observation is a method of sociological research in which the observer, to one degree or another, is directly involved in the social process being studied, is in direct contact with the individuals and groups being studied and participates with them in a certain field of activity.
Depending on the location and role of the observer, four types of participant observations are distinguished. The first of them is complete inclusion, when observation is carried out secretly, from within the group or community being studied, and the true face and goals of the observer are unknown to the observed individuals. With full inclusion, the sociologist acts in the community under study as an active member, and the rest of its members do not suspect that a researcher is in their midst. An example of such complete inclusion is the activity of one of the employees of the Institute of Sociology of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus as a worker in one of the workshops of the Minsk Motorcycle Plant. During his six-month work, he was able to thoroughly study the attitude of workers, employees and specialists to labor, wages, the management of the enterprise and the socio-economic and political changes taking place in the country.
The second type of participant observation of the researcher, in which the latter does not hide his role, is an observer of the life of a certain group in various situations. This is exactly how a factory sociologist behaves, who is a member of the same enterprise as the production team of the workshop or section, shift, etc. he is studying. In this case, the observed team quickly adapts to the presence of the observer and, with a positive attitude towards the goals of the study, begins to actively help him in collecting empirical material of interest to researchers. In this case, the researcher’s position can be characterized as “participant-observer”.
The third type of participant observation is characterized by the position and role of the researcher as a “participant observer.” In this case, the observer’s contact with team members is minimal, the researcher does not hide his goals, but the observation he carries out is more formal in nature. Examples of such observation can be the timing of working hours carried out at enterprises or determining the role of illumination and dust in the workshop on the productivity of workers.
The fourth type of participant observation is characterized by the position of the researcher as a complete observer. In this situation, the researcher performs the functions of an observer without interacting with the participants in the observed situation. It performs its role in a manner very similar to non-participant observation.
5) Field observation is different in that it is carried out in a real life situation, in a natural setting, in direct contact of the researcher with the object being studied. Most standardized, non-standardized, participant observations are carried out in the form of field observation.
6) Laboratory observation is a type of collection of empirical sociological information that is carried out in conditions artificially created for the observed group and controlled by researchers. When conducting such observations, sociologists quite clearly use various technical means to record the behavior of a group in changed conditions and situations in which the actions of participants specially selected for laboratory research are carried out.
7) Systematic observation is a type of research that is carried out according to a clearly defined schedule, with regular recording of predetermined signs, situations, processes and actions. It allows us to identify the dynamics of the processes and events being studied. This, for example, is the study of people’s behavior over the course of a month or a year (at a certain interval) when moving to work (in order to establish the desired rhythm of traffic) or at exchange offices (to determine the population’s response to changes in exchange rates).
8) Episodic observation is the recording of the phenomena and events being studied in the absence of clear regulations for recording them in certain time intervals or at various stages of their occurrence.
9) Random observation is a sociological study in which the units and terms of observation are not provided in advance, but the researcher observes and records interesting facts and events of social life that deserve attention, from his point of view. Such an observation also occurs in the case when a sociologist, while conducting systematic observation, encounters an interesting fact or event that is directly related to the object being studied, but was not foreseen in advance by the research project. For example, when studying the influence of wages on people’s attitudes towards work, the influence of leisure time on work activity may also be revealed, then it is useful for a sociologist to observe how such an influence is realized.
10) One-time observation is an observation in which one phenomenon or event is recorded, occurring in a certain place and at a certain time, for example, non-participant observation of a rally of a certain political party or movement carried out by a sociologist.
11) Panel observation is a process of repeated, extended over time, carried out at certain intervals, systematic and organized observation of the same object, with the goal of identifying changes occurring in it.
12) Controlled observation is carried out purposefully according to a pre-prepared program, using standardized plans and documentation to obtain reliable information about the object being studied and test hypotheses. Control is organized by increasing the number of observers and comparing the results of their observations, as well as by intensifying the process - by conducting an orgy of observations of the same object.
13) Uncontrolled observation is carried out by an observer when studying real life situations without a strict plan and the use of pre-prepared documentation .
Thus, we have identified several main types of observation in sociology, which can be classified on various grounds:
1.Depending on control elements
Controlled
Uncontrollable
2.Depending on the position of the observer relative to the object of observation
Included
Not included
3.According to the degree of formalization
Non-standardized
Standardized
4.According to the conditions of organization of observation
Field
Laboratory
5.According to the time of observation
Systematic
Episodic
Random
One-step
Panel.
Each of the listed types can be combined with one or more others; these combinations of varieties are thought out by the researcher for each specific study, depending on its goals and objectives.
Observation allows you to obtain information that remains inaccessible during questioning and document analysis. It allows you to record the immediate manifestations of the object being studied. A sociologist sees the behavioral manifestations of people, their immediate reaction to life circumstances. Unlike a survey, observation allows you to see an object without subjective assessments of respondents. At the same time, it must be taken into account that a certain connection arises between the observer and the observed. Sociologists themselves are part of society, and this leaves an imprint on their perception of the observed phenomena.
Observation is carried out over a certain group in a state of activity (professional, industrial, leisure, students). The collection of information is preceded by painstaking work on a research program, which allows one to identify points of interest to the researcher. Observation cards are often developed in which manifestations and reactions of those observed that interest the sociologist are recorded.
Depending on the goals and objectives set, and the characteristics of the group being studied, various types of observations are used. As a method of collecting information, observation is classified according to various criteria:
1) According to the degree of formalization, procedures are distinguished: a) unstructured, when there is no strict plan for the emphasis of observation. Only the object of study is defined. The sociologist determines the main elements of the object, finds out the social atmosphere, and collects initial information. b) Structuralized, when the sociologist preliminarily determines which of the elements of the process being studied deserves the greatest influence, and draws up a plan. It requires good knowledge of the subject and, most often, is preceded by other methods.
2) According to the position of the observer, observation is distinguished: a) non-involved (external). For example, observing the activities of a service team or the life of students at a university. But as an outsider, a sociologist may not understand the real meaning of the observed phenomena. b) included (participating), when the researcher is included in the process of activity of the observed group. Various types of participation can be distinguished. Firstly, the researcher can act as an equal member of the team, while his goals will remain unknown to those being observed. The complexity of this option is that the sociologist begins to get used to the group, he develops subjective emotional states and value judgments. Secondly, the sociologist can conduct observation from a neutral position. For example, as a trainee. But here a moral problem arises about the admissibility of such observations. Thirdly, there may be a “participant-observer” position. Everyone knows about the presence of a researcher who does not hide his scientific goals. He even participates in discussions of common problems. If such a position is honest, the sociologist runs the risk of not seeing the real picture of the group’s life.
Survey method.
The bulk of empirical information is obtained in sociology by survey methods, the essence of which is to obtain information about the attitude of respondents to certain vital phenomena and events of social life. The great importance of these methods is determined, firstly, by organizational advantages (it is always easier to organize a survey than to carry out any other method of sociological research); secondly, the relative cheapness, thirdly, the content and versatility of the information obtained by the survey method (using the survey method you can obtain any information on a variety of problems, which cannot always be documented or recorded through observation); fourthly, the possibility of maximum use of technical means for processing the data obtained as a result of the survey.
However, survey methods also have their negative sides. The quality of the information obtained by these methods is influenced by factors related, on the one hand, to the personality of the respondent (level of education, culture, memory properties, protective mechanisms of the psyche, attitude to the problem under study and to the organization or person conducting the survey), on the other - factors related to the activities of the researcher himself (starting with professionalism in compiling a questionnaire and ending with the skill of the questionnaire or interviewer working with the respondent to obtain the required information). The results of the survey are negatively affected by the presence of unauthorized persons during the survey, poorly chosen time and place of the survey, non-compliance with the principles of anonymity, and poor organization of the survey procedure itself. To neutralize these factors, it is necessary to strictly comply with regulatory requirements for the use of survey techniques.
The main types of survey methods are questionnaires and sociological interviews, which, depending on a number of characteristics, are divided into: continuous and sample; individual and group; mass and expert; oral and written; full-time and correspondence; disposable and reusable; standardized and non-standardized.
The specificity of survey methods is that, from a logical point of view, they implement a “question-answer” system, followed by qualitative and quantitative processing of the responses received. With a number of common characteristics, these methods also have their own distinctive characteristics.
Conducting a questionnaire survey includes three stages: 1) preparatory stage (including the development of a survey program, drawing up a plan and network schedule for the robot, designing tools, pilot testing them, reproducing tools, drawing up instructions for the questionnaire, respondent and other persons participating in the survey, selection and training of interviewers, questionnaires, solving organizational problems); 2) the operational stage, which includes a number of specific stages; 3) the resulting stage – processing of the received information. Based on the structure of the method, its characteristics are determined, which includes a number of requirements for the initial documents of the questionnaire survey, for the researcher, for the respondent and for the tools themselves (for the questionnaire, questionnaire).
The main means of communication when conducting a survey is a questionnaire. Both the compilation of the questionnaire and the methods of working with it have their own methodological techniques and characteristics, the observance of which is a necessary condition for the successful implementation of this method, aimed at obtaining reliable information. Each specific sociological study requires the creation of a special questionnaire, but they all have a common structure. Any questionnaire includes three main parts:
Introductory part
Final part
In the introduction indicates who is conducting the research, its purpose and objectives, the method of filling out the questionnaire, emphasizes the anonymous nature of its completion, and also expresses gratitude for participating in the survey. The introductory part also includes instructions for filling out the questionnaire.
Of particular importance is the compilation of the main part of the questionnaire, because The success of the research largely depends on this. The content of the questionnaire (the nature and types of questions asked, the order in which they are placed, the formalization of expected answers) is determined by the desire to obtain the most reliable information about the object being studied. To do this, you need to be well versed in the system of questions on the basis of which the content of the questionnaire is formed. Formulation of questions is the most difficult stage of compiling a questionnaire.
Depending on the subject content and functions performed, different types of questions can be distinguished:
Questions about facts. The purpose of these questions is to obtain information about social phenomena, the state of affairs in production, and the behavior of others. They may also relate to the personality of the respondent himself when he fills out these “passports”, as well as carry information about his actions, actions or their consequences.
Questions about knowledge. Their purpose is to reveal what the respondent knows and can state. As a rule, these are exam-type questions aimed at identifying the respondent’s level of awareness and knowledge in a certain area. Such questions may contain tasks, experimental and game situations, the solution of which requires the respondent to use certain skills, knowledge of specific facts, events, names.
Questions about opinion. These questions are aimed at recording facts, wishes, expectations, plans for the future and can relate to any problems and personality of the respondent. The answer in this case is value judgments based on individual ideas. Through opinions, a person’s attitude to certain events is revealed.
Questions about motives. These questions are designed to reveal a person’s subjective understanding of the motives of his activities. One question about motives cannot give a true picture of the motivation of activity; this requires a whole range of similar questions.
By their logical nature, questions are divided into:
Main questions. Based on the answers to these questions, conclusions are drawn about the phenomenon being studied; they make up the majority of the questionnaire.
Filter questions. These questions are created to screen out incompetent persons during a survey on the problem being studied or to single out a portion of respondents from the entire array on a certain basis.
Control questions. They serve to check the stability, truthfulness and consistency of answers, determine their sincerity and reliability.
Suggestive questions assist the respondent in correctly understanding the main question and help give a more correct answer.
According to their psychological function, which determines the respondent’s attitude to the very fact of the survey and to the questions that he has to answer, questions are divided into:
Contact questions serve to establish contact with the respondent. Their goal is to create interest in the research and encourage participation in it. As a rule, this is the first or one of the first questions of the questionnaire, which should be very simple in form and concern the respondent himself, as if to set him up for interested participation in the survey. Questions of purely event-related nature are often used as contact questions. The main function of this type of question is to facilitate interaction with the respondent during the survey, encouraging him to provide the most complete and sincere representation of his opinion on the essence of the problem under study.
Buffer questions. The purpose of this type of question is to switch attention when moving from one thematic block to another, and often this type of question represents not only the question itself, but also a narrative preamble to it, where the researcher explains the logic of thought, thereby creating symmetry of communication: the respondent is specifically asked to switch from one problem and not another and it is explained why this needs to be done, he is invited to think, again focus his attention, switch. Questions of this type usually start with the general formula: “What do you think?” - and then there is a description of the new problem.
Direct questions are aimed at expressing the respondent’s attitude to the problem being analyzed, assessing it from their own positions.
Indirect questions. When answering these questions, the respondent answers on behalf of the group, collective, in an impersonal form, which allows him, as it were, to hide his own position and strengthen the critical emphasis of his statements. In addition, indirect questions are also asked when direct questions are not entirely convenient to ask or there is an assumption that they will not receive sincere answers; these are situations concerning private, intimate aspects of human life or their relationship to power, to their immediate superior.
Based on the nature of the answers, questions are divided into the following types:
Open questions require an original narrative response in the form of a word, sentence or several sentences. Formally, these questions are distinguished by the fact that they are followed by several blank lines, which must be filled in. The answer received is of a natural nature and provides maximum information on the topic of research, which is very important for a sociologist. However, difficulties arise associated with processing the received responses and encoding them, which inevitably leads to a significant limitation in the use of the computer.
In closed questions, the respondent is offered a certain set of ready-made answers, from which he must choose one or more options that he prefers. Such questions are very convenient to handle.
Half-closed questions. Here, along with a set of specific answer options, in a situation where it is impossible to choose a suitable option from the proposed list, the respondent is given the opportunity to express his opinion on the problem under discussion in free form.
Scale questions. The answer to these questions is given in the form of a scale in which one or another indicator must be noted.
Questions-menu. Here the respondent is asked to select any combination of possible answer options.
Alternative questions require answers based on the “yes-no” principle and are mutually exclusive. In this case, the proposed list of alternatives must be completely exhaustive, and the alternatives themselves must be mixed without shifting in any direction, i.e. balanced.
The sequence of questions itself can be formed either by the funnel method (arrangement of questions from the simplest to the most complex), or determined by the method of stage-by-stage development of questions. It is necessary to remember that in any case the number of questions in the questionnaire is limited. Practice shows that a questionnaire that requires more than 45 minutes to fill out contains more random or insufficient information. Therefore, the optimal time for filling out the questionnaire is 35-45 minutes (which corresponds to 25-30 questions on the research topic).
Drawing up a questionnaire involves checking, testing, and clarifying it. A pilot study is conducted to assess the quality of the questionnaire. During it, the content of the questionnaire, the wording and sequence of questions, answer options, etc. are checked. The piloting is carried out on a micro-sample (up to 100 people) by an experienced sociologist in the form of an interview with recording of the respondent’s answers, his reactions to the content of the questions, their understanding and perception, as well as with the obligatory recording of the time spent on the survey. All this allows us to identify shortcomings in the tools, correct them and adapt the questionnaire to mass work.
Based on the method of distribution, questionnaires are divided into several types:
- handouts(a questionnaire survey in which the questionnaire is personally handed in by the questionnaire and either waits for it to be filled out and then receives it immediately - an in-person handout survey, or receives a completed questionnaire a few days later - an absentee handout survey);
- postal ( the questionnaire, with prior consent, is sent and received via mail);
- press(the questionnaire is offered to the reader through the press).
- teletype(with this method, the distribution and collection of tools and accompanying documents is carried out using a teletype and telegraph network).
According to the type of research tasks, surveys are:
Deep (aimed at obtaining search information);
Focused (data is collected on a specific situation);
Standardized (aimed at obtaining statistical information);
Sociometric (explores relationships in small groups).
According to the level of competence of respondents, they are distinguished:
Mass survey (non-specialist opinion on a particular topic);
Mass survey in collaboration with a researcher (involves information assistance to the respondent from the questionnaire in understanding the analyzed situation);
Symptomatic survey (the respondent has sufficient knowledge of general information without a deep understanding of the tasks and goals of the study);
Expert survey (survey of specialists on the topic being analyzed).
The final part of the questionnaire expresses gratitude to the respondent for participating in the study, expresses hope for future cooperation, and indicates the time and source when and where it will be possible to get acquainted with the results of the study.
An important method of concrete sociological research is oral survey - interviewing. Sociological interviews have a wide range of applications; they are used at the preparatory stage of research; when conducting a pilot study for the purpose of adjusting and testing sociological tools; as an independent research method (today one of the main ones) and as a way to control the reliability of information obtained by other methods of sociological research.
Interviewing has its own specifics compared to questioning. The main difference lies in the way the sociologist and the respondent communicate. When conducting a survey, it is completely mediated by the questionnaire: the surveyor is passive, the content and meaning of the questions are interpreted by the respondent himself in accordance with the ideas and beliefs that he has formed regarding the essence of the problem being discussed. The respondent independently formulates his answer and records it in the questionnaire. When conducting a sociological interview, contact between the sociologist-interviewer and the interviewee is carried out directly; the interviewer organizes the interview, asks questions, conducts the conversation, directs it, and records the answers received. The interviewer can clarify the wording of the questions asked if the respondent does not understand them, as well as clarify the respondent’s point of view, ask him for additional information in order to adequately, accurately present it in the questionnaire (which is impossible during a questionnaire). At the same time, it is obvious that to obtain the same amount of information in the case of using the interview method, much more time will be spent than when using a questionnaire.
In the work of a sociologist, various types of interviews are used:
- non-standardized interview. It assumes the absence of strict detail in the behavior of the sociologist and the respondent during the interview. The sociologist develops a questionnaire for the interview and its plan, which provides for a certain sequence and wording of questions in an open form. The interviewer asks questions strictly in accordance with the reference sheet, and the respondent gives an answer in free form, which is precisely recorded by the interviewer. This type of interview is difficult for both the respondent and the interviewer. Subsequent processing and coding of materials are also complex. This determines the infrequent use of this type of interview in practice.
- standardized interview. It involves a conversation based on a rigidly fixed questionnaire, where the options for answering the question are also clearly presented. In a standardized interview, closed questions usually predominate. In this case, the interviewer asks questions to the respondent from memory in a strictly defined sequence, and identifies the answers received from the respondent with one of the proposed answers to the question in the questionnaire. The difficulty lies in the impossibility of asking the respondent a large number of questions.
- semi-standardized interview involves a combination of features of the two indicated types.
Conducting an interview requires organizational preparation, which involves choosing the place and time of the interview. The location of the interview is determined by the specifics of the subject of study. In any case, the environment in which the interview is conducted should be calm and confidential, i.e. without the presence of unauthorized persons at a time convenient for the respondent.
The work of the interviewer involves the following tasks:
Establishing contact with respondents;
Asking questions correctly;
Correct recording of answers.
Thus, a questionnaire survey and a sociological interview provide the bulk of sociological information. Despite all its importance, one cannot fail to notice a certain amount of subjectivity in this information, because one way or another it contains the opinion of people, which by its very nature cannot but be subjective. The researcher’s task is to reduce this share and, on the basis of subjective opinions, to record the manifestation of objective phenomena and trends in social life. For this purpose, special methods are used for processing questionnaires and interview forms in order to obtain objective information, as well as the ability to supplement this information with other methods.
Conclusion
The main methods of applied sociology are document analysis, observation, and surveys. The bulk of empirical information is obtained in sociology by survey methods (questionnaires and interviews), the essence of which is to obtain information about the attitude of respondents to certain vital phenomena and events of social life.
Literature
1. Babosov E.M. Applied sociology. – Minsk, 2000.
2. How to conduct sociological research / Ed. Gorshkova M., Sheregi I. et al. - M., 2005.
3. Kanygin G.V. Unobservability of social phenomena // Sociological Research. – 2010. - No. 5
4. Myagkov A.Yu.; Zhuravleva S.L. On the reliability of respondents’ answers in a telephone interview // Sociological Research. – 2010. - No. 10
5. Ogryzko-Vevyurovsky G. Versions of the question in the study of public opinion // Sociological studies. – 2003. – No. 6.
Lecture No. 5. Observation
Observation in sociological research is a method of collecting primary social information about the object being studied through direct perception and direct registration of all factors related to the object being studied and significant from the point of view of the goals of the study. Systematicity, planning, purposefulness are the characteristic features of observation as a method of concrete sociological research in Marxist-Leninist sociology.
Features of observation in sociology;
Communication between the observer and the object of observation;
That the observer cannot be deprived of a purely human trait - emotionality of perception;
Difficulty in follow-up.
The difficulties of using observation as a method of collecting primary social information are a consequence of its characteristics and are divided into subjective (related to the personality of the observer) and objective (independent of the observer).
The subjective difficulties of observation include the researcher’s possible understanding and interpretation of the behavior and actions of other people through the prism of his own “I”, through his system of value orientations, as well as the emotional coloring of human perception and the inevitability of the influence of the researcher’s past experience on the results of observation.
The objective difficulties of observation include, first of all, the limitation of observation time to the time of the event. In addition, not all social facts are amenable to direct observation.
Planning for observation. In order to obtain the information necessary for the purposes of the study, that is, to obtain information about the important characteristics of the object being studied, not to miss any important facts related to its activities, or significant information about it, a plan and observation program should be carefully developed in advance. The following stages of observation are distinguished.
Establishing the object and subject of observation, specific goals, setting tasks.
Providing access to the environment, obtaining appropriate solutions, establishing contacts with people.
Selecting a method (type) of observation and developing a procedure based on previously collected materials.
Preparation of technical documents and equipment.
Conducting observations, collecting data, accumulating information.
Recording of observation results, carried out in the form of: a) a brief temporary recording, carried out “but without delay”, as far as space and time allow; b) cards used to register information regarding observed persons, phenomena, and processes; c) an observation protocol, which is an extended version of the card; d) an observation diary, in which all the necessary information, statements, behavior of individuals, personal reflections, difficulties are systematically recorded day after day; e) video, photo, film, sound recording.
Control of observation, which can be carried out in different ways: a) by conducting a conversation with the participants in the situation; b) accessing documents related to this event; c) checking the results of one’s own observation with observations made by another qualified observer; d) sending observation reports to other sociologists for the purpose of repeating the observation,
The observation report must contain: a) thorough documentation of the time, place and circumstances of the observation; b) information about the role of the observer in the team, methods of observation; c) characteristics of the observed persons; d) a detailed description of the observed facts; e) the observer's own notes and interpretations.
Types of surveillance
As a method of collecting information, observation is usually classified according to the degree of formalization of the procedure, the position of the observer, the conditions of the organization and the frequency of its implementation.
By degree of formalization:
Unstructured.
In unstructured (uncontrolled) observation, the researcher does not determine in advance which elements of the process (situation) being studied he will observe. It does not have a strict plan; only the immediate object of observation itself is predetermined.
The disadvantage of uncontrolled observation is the danger of the observer's subjective attitude to the object, which can lead to a distortion of the result. This is where the observation-inference problem can manifest itself most clearly;
Structured (controlled) is a type of observation in which the sociologist determines in advance which of the elements of the process or situation being studied are most important for his research, and focuses his attention on them, drawing up a special plan for recording observations before starting to collect information.
Depending on the degree of observer participation:
In non-participant (external) observation, the researcher or his assistants are located outside the object being studied. They observe the ongoing processes from the outside, without interfering in their course, without asking any questions - they simply record the course of events;
Involved (participant) is a type of observation in which the observer, to one degree or another, directly holds the key to the process being studied, is in contact with the people being observed and takes part in their activities. The degree of involvement of the observer in the situation under study can fluctuate over a fairly wide range: from “passive” observation, which is close to non-involved and similar to observation through glass, transparent only to the observer, to “active” observation, when the observer “merges” to such an extent with the group under study, that those observed begin to consider him a member of this team and treat him accordingly.
There are different types of such participation (inclusion), which sociologists also call “roles” of the observer.
Full inclusion (observation is carried out secretly, from the inside). The “participant”, his true identity and goals as a researcher are unknown to those being observed. He joins the team under study and takes part in its activities along with others.
“Participant-observer” is a form of observation in which the researcher does not hide his role and, with the consent of the team, observes its life for a certain time, has the opportunity to talk with its members, and take part in discussing the problems of the team.
“Observer” is a role that is in many ways similar to non-participant observation. As a rule, the observables do not know the tasks that the researcher sets for himself; they may not even know they are being watched. The observer contacts them only to the extent that the situation forces him to do so, answering the questions of the observed about the purpose of his presence, and explains it with some plausible pretext.
Based on the location and conditions of organization, observations are divided into field and laboratory.
Field observation is carried out in a natural setting, in a real life situation, in direct contact with the object being studied.
Laboratory observation is a type of observation in which environmental conditions and the observed situation are determined by the researcher. Its main advantage is the maximum opportunity, compared to other types, to identify all factors, situations and establish the relationship between them. The main disadvantage is the artificiality of the situation, which, despite all the researcher’s tricks, can dramatically change the behavior of the participants.
Based on the regularity of the observation, one can distinguish between systematic and random observation.
Systematic observation is characterized, first of all, by the regularity of recording actions, situations, and processes over a certain period of time. It allows us to identify the dynamics of processes and significantly increase the reliability of extrapolation of their development.
Random observation refers to the observation of a pre-planned phenomenon, activity, or social situation.
Control questions:
1. Scope of application of the observation method. Advantages and disadvantages of its use. Types of observations and criteria for their classification.
2. Development of a program and tools for formalized observation. Observation procedure.
3. Registration of observation results and methods for increasing their reliability.