Crusades. Chivalry and the Crusades Western Europe in the Middle Ages Crusades

08.04.2024

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Topic: Chivalry and the Crusades

Introduction

The Middle Ages is usually called the period from the 1st century. BC. to the 14th century AD This era does not have clear time boundaries, and historians define the time frame of this period in different ways.

Opinions about the emergence of knighthood are quite different: some attribute the emergence of knighthood to Homer and ancient Hellas, others to the early Middle Ages.

A lot of literature and Internet sites are devoted to this topic. But the opinions of historians from different times are different.

In Soviet historiography, they were more often of the opinion that chivalry was almost completely untenable. The author’s main argument was usually the “monstrous weight of the armor” in which it was impossible to fight. If the knight was sitting on a horse, then he was still worth something as a fighter, but as soon as he was thrown off, he could not fight.

Modern domestic and foreign historiography consider chivalry to be the strongest force in Europe. Few modern historians consider chivalry to be untenable and cite the example of the Battle of the Ice and other battles in the Baltic states.

1. Chivalry

1.1 Chivalry in the history of western and central Europe

Chivalry is a special privileged social stratum of medieval society. Traditionally, this concept is associated with the history of the countries of Western and Central Europe, where, during the heyday of the Middle Ages, essentially all secular feudal warriors belonged to knighthood. But more often this term is used in relation to medium and small feudal lords as opposed to the nobility. The 9th and 10th centuries were harsh times in the life of all countries of Western Europe. None of them formed a cohesive, strong whole. France, Germany, Italy were divided into thousands, or even tens of thousands of small and large estates, the owners of which - dukes, counts, barons - were almost independent sovereigns of their estates. They carried out justice and reprisals against the serf and free population of their lands, disposing of their life and death, imposed taxes on them, raised troops, declared war and made peace. The peasants, of course, were not able to carry out equestrian service, and therefore it was carried out by vassals who received land from their lord under the condition of performing military service. Such armed horsemen, obliged to appear at the request of their lord on horseback in heavy armor and accompanied by a number of foot and horse soldiers recruited from the dependent people of their estate, bore the name of knights.

At this time, conditional forms of feudal land tenure, first lifelong, later hereditary, became widespread. When transferring land to a fief, the grantor became a lord (suzerain), and the recipient became a vassal of the latter, which implied military service (compulsory military service did not exceed 40 days a year) and the performance of some other duties in favor of the lord. These included monetary “help” in the event of a son being knighted, his daughter’s wedding, or the need to ransom a lord who had been captured. According to custom, vassals participated in the lord's court and were present in his council. The ceremony of formalizing vassal relations was called homage, and the oath of allegiance to the lord was called foie. If the size of the land received for service allowed, the new owner, in turn, transferred part of it as fiefs to his vassals. This is how a multi-stage system of vassalage took shape (“suzerainty”, “feudal hierarchy”, “feudal ladder”) from the supreme overlord to the knights who did not have their own vassals. For the continental countries of Western Europe, the rules of vassal relations reflected the principle “my vassal’s vassal is not my vassal,” while, for example, in England, direct vassalage of all feudal landowners from the king was introduced with mandatory service in the royal army.

The hierarchy of vassal relations repeated the hierarchy of land holdings and determined the principle of the formation of the military militia of the feudal lords. Thus, along with the establishment of feudal relations, the formation of knighthood as a serving military-feudal class took place, the heyday of which occurred in the 11th-14th centuries. Military affairs became his main social function. The military profession gave rights and privileges, determined special class views, ethical standards, traditions, and cultural values.

The military duties of the knights included protecting the honor and dignity of the overlord, and most importantly, his land from encroachments both from neighboring feudal rulers in internecine wars, and from troops of other states in the event of an external attack. In conditions of civil strife, the line between protecting one’s own possessions and seizing other people’s lands was quite unsteady, and a champion of justice in words often turned out to be an invader in reality, not to mention participating in campaigns of conquest organized by royal power, such as the numerous campaigns of the German emperors in Italy. or by the Pope himself, like the Crusades.

1.2 Knight's army and its weapons

The knightly army in those days when there was no gunpowder and firearms was a powerful force that was difficult to defeat. Battle armor made the knight almost invulnerable. Chain mail with mittens and a hauberg tightly fitted the body, reaching to the very knees, greaves covered his legs, a helmet (tophelm), worn over a ringed hood, protected him from enemy blows to the head. To repel blows, a wooden shield covered with leather was used, in the middle of which there was a plaque made of gilded iron, and to attack the enemy, a wide, short sword with a flat handle, which was attached to the belt, and a long spear with an iron tip. The infantry and archers tried to kill the horses in order to dismount the horsemen, but the knights always had a fresh horse in stock. They never went to battle alone, but always took with them one or two squires, who remained behind the battle line during battles with two or three horses and spare weapons. These squires were recruited either from dependent people or from the sons of knights who had not yet received the title of knights. Its weapons and tactics corresponded to military tasks, the scale of military operations and the technical level of its time. The knightly army consisted of detachments that in battle were built in a “wedge”, that is, in such a way that the tip of the column included no more than 5 people - in the 1st row, and then there were 2 rows of 7 - then rows of 9, 11, 13 Human; As for the rest of the knightly cavalry, it lined up in a regular quadrangle. The purpose of the wedge was to break through the enemy's closed formation, and then fight each one individually.

Feudal wars did not exhaust the social role of chivalry. In conditions of feudal fragmentation and the relative weakness of royal power, knighthood, bound by a system of vassalage into a single privileged corporation, protected the feudal lords’ ownership of land, the basis of their domination. A striking example of this is the history of the suppression of the largest peasant uprising in France - the Jacquerie (1358-1359), which broke out during the Hundred Years' War. At the same time, the knights representing the warring parties, the British and the French, united under the banners of the Navarrese king Carlo the Evil and turned their weapons against the rebellious peasants, solving a common social problem. Chivalry also influenced the political processes of the era, since the social interests of the feudal class as a whole and the norms of knightly morality to a certain extent restrained centrifugal tendencies and limited the feudal freemen. During the process of state centralization, knighthood (medium and small feudal lords) constituted the main military force of the kings in opposition to the nobility in the struggle for territorial unification and real power in the state. This was the case, for example, in France in the 14th century, when, in violation of the previous norms of vassal law, a significant part of the knighthood was recruited into the king’s army on the basis of monetary payment.

Participation in the knightly army required a certain level of security, and a land grant was not only a reward for service, but also a necessary material condition for its implementation, since a knight acquired a war horse and expensive heavy weapons (spear, sword, mace, armor, armor for a horse) at own funds, not to mention the maintenance of the corresponding retinue. Knightly armor included up to 200 parts, and the weight of military equipment for a heavily armed warrior reached 50 kg, not counting the armor intended for a horse. Over time, the complexity and price of armor increased. The system of knightly training and education served to prepare future warriors. In Western Europe, boys up to the age of 7 grew up in a family and usually remained in female hands, and after 7, his knightly upbringing began. But it did not consist in teaching any sciences. Few people cared about the development of the mind at that time. Few of the knights knew how to write and read: literacy and needlework were considered more the property of women. Thus, from a very young age, the knight’s son was trained in knightly activities: he spent whole days in the forest, learned to handle a falcon, carry it on his arm, bait it with a bird, hunt with dogs, fight with swords and spears. This is what science was all about. When he turned 12-13 years old, he was sent to the lord's court, where he completed his education as a page, then as a squire. The lord entrusted him with various branches of his household: caring for horses and dogs, greeting his guests, helping to dismount horses, setting the table, and so on. When the youth reached the age of 15, the ceremony of knighting them was finally performed. However, often the initiation took place sometimes later, sometimes earlier. Especially by the 13th century, there is a noticeable tendency to push it back to 21 years. Sometimes it was not there at all, because not everyone could withstand the catastrophic expenses that accompanied this ritual.

In the XII-XIII centuries, specific concepts of honor and duty were developed, idealizing chivalry and used by the ruling class primarily for class purposes: to contrast the “noble” knighthood, supposedly destined for domination, with the common people, to strengthen the class organization of feudal lords, and so on. Devotion to religion, devotion to one's lord, and belligerence were declared the highest virtues of a knight. In relation to persons below him on the social ladder, the knight was often brutal rapists. In the process of the formation of a feudal centralized monarchy, small and medium knighthood became the main support of royal power. Tradition required the knight to be knowledgeable in matters of religion, know the rules of court etiquette, and master the “seven knightly virtues”: horse riding, fencing, skillful handling of a spear, swimming, hunting, playing checkers, writing and singing poetry in honor of the lady of the heart. The most favorite pleasure were tournaments, which were organized constantly and everywhere by kings, sovereign princes, and simple barons, sometimes to worthily celebrate some event, the wedding of a daughter, the knighting of a son, the conclusion of peace with the enemy, and sometimes simply, meaning only fun. The news of the upcoming pleasure quickly spread through rumors and messengers, who were sent with letters to the most noble persons. Then hasty preparations began in all the castles.

1.3 Rite of Initiation and Moral and Ethical Standards

Not every feudal lord could be a knight at the same time. Knighthood was imparted only through a special initiation ceremony. On the other hand, it was not necessary to own flax in order to become a knight. For special merits, a simple peasant who did not own a feud could also be ordained to this rank. However, as a general rule, chivalry was an institution for feudal lords. Knighting symbolized entry into a privileged class, familiarization with its rights and responsibilities, and was accompanied by a special ceremony. According to European custom, the knight initiating the title struck the initiator on the shoulder with the flat of his sword, pronounced the initiation formula, put on a helmet and golden spurs, and presented a sword - a symbol of knighthood - and a shield with the image of a coat of arms. The initiate, in turn, took an oath of allegiance and a commitment to uphold a code of honor. The ritual of knightly virtues included military courage and contempt for danger, pride, a noble attitude towards women, and attention to members of knightly families in need of help. Stinginess was condemned, betrayal was not forgiven.

But the ideal was not always in agreement with reality. As for predatory campaigns in foreign lands (for example, the capture of Jerusalem or Constantinople during the Crusades), knightly “deeds” brought grief, ruin, reproach and shame to more than just the common people. The brutal exploitation of peasants, the seizure of booty in feudal wars, and the robbery of merchants on the roads were the main sources of knightly income. In an effort to seize foreign lands and wealth, knighthood took an active part in aggressive predatory enterprises - the crusades.

2. Crusades

There were about 54 crusades against infidels. There were 7 campaigns to the Holy Land, which had the greatest impact on history.

2.1 First Crusade 1095 -1099.

The campaign, led by Duke Godfrey of Bouillon, Count Raymond of Toulouse, Duke Bohemond of Tarentum, Duke Robert of Normandy and Count Robert of Flanders, was the most successful and ended with the conquest of Palestine and the capture of Jerusalem and the founding of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

According to legend, 100 thousand knights and 600 thousand infantry took part in the campaign; the Pope in one of his letters speaks of 300 thousand people. The chronicles give the same figures for Muslims - for example, in the army of the Mosul emir Kerboghi, who tried to relieve Antioch, besieged by the crusaders in 1098, there were supposedly 200 thousand people. Modern historians reduce the original Crusader army to 4,500 knights, 30,000 infantry, and an unknown number of servants. By the time of the siege of Jerusalem in 1099, their number had decreased to 1,200 knights and 12 thousand infantry (both due to losses and due to garrisons left in previously conquered lands). After the victory at Ascalon over the Egyptians and the dissolution of the crusaders, Godfrey of Bouillon had only 300 knights and 2 thousand infantry left in Jerusalem.

In April 1097, the crusaders crossed the Bosphorus. Soon Nicaea surrendered to the Byzantines, and on July 1, the crusaders defeated Sultan Kilij-Arslan at Dorileum and thus paved their way through Asia Minor. Moving further, the crusaders found precious allies against the Turks in the princes of Lesser Armenia, whom they began to support in every possible way. Baldwin, having separated from the main army, established himself in Edessa. For the crusaders this was very important due to the position of the city, which has since constituted their extreme eastern outpost. In October 1097, the crusaders besieged Antioch, which they managed to take only in June of the following year. In Antioch, the crusaders, in turn, were besieged by the emir of Mosul Kerboga and, suffering from hunger, were in great danger; They managed, however, to leave the city and defeat Kerboga. After a long feud with Raymond, Antioch was taken over by Bohemond, who, even before its fall, managed to force the rest of the crusader leaders to agree to transfer this important city to him. While there were disputes over Antioch, an unrest occurred in the army, dissatisfied with the delay, which forced the princes, stopping the strife, to move on. The same thing was repeated later: while the army was rushing towards Jerusalem, the leaders argued over each captured city.

On June 7, 1099, the holy city finally opened before the eyes of the crusaders, and on July 15 they took it, and carried out a terrible massacre among the Muslims. Received power in Jerusalem Gottfried of Bouillon. Having defeated the Egyptian army near Ascalon, he ensured the conquest of the crusaders on this side for some time. After the death of Godfrey, Baldwin the Elder became king of Jerusalem, and transferred Edessa to Baldwin the Younger. In 1101, the second large crusader army from Lombardy, Germany and France came to Asia Minor, led by many noble and wealthy knights; but most of this army was destroyed by the combined forces of several emirs. Meanwhile, the crusaders, who had established themselves in Syria (their number increased with new pilgrims arriving almost continuously), had to wage a difficult struggle with the neighboring Muslim rulers. Bohemond was captured by one of them and ransomed by the Armenians. In addition, the crusaders had already been waging war with the Greeks over the coastal cities since the spring of 1099. In Asia Minor, the Byzantines managed to regain significant territory; their successes could have been even greater here if they had not wasted their strength in the fight against the crusaders from beyond the remote Syrian and Cilician regions.

2.2 Second Crusade 1145 -1149

The campaign, led by the French king Louis VII and the German king Conrad III, was organized after the conquest of Edessa by the Seljuks. It ended in a terrible defeat for the crusaders, who lost tens of thousands killed and died from disease and starvation.

Conrad arrived in Constantinople by dry route (via Hungary), in mid-September 1147 he transported troops to Asia, but after a clash with the Seljuks at Dorylaeum he returned to the sea. The French, frightened by Conrad's failure, went along the western coast of Asia Minor; then the king and noble crusaders sailed on ships to Syria, where they arrived in March 1148. The rest of the crusaders wanted to break through by land and for the most part died. In April, Conrad arrived in Akka; but the siege of Damascus, undertaken together with the Jerusalemites, went unsuccessfully, due to the selfish and short-sighted policies of the latter. Then Conrad, and in the fall of the next year Louis VII returned to their homeland. Edessa, which had been taken by Christians after the death of Imadeddin-Tsenki, but was soon again taken from them by his son Nureddin, was now lost forever to the crusaders. The 4 decades that followed were a difficult time for Christians in the East. In 1176, the Byzantine Emperor Manuel suffered a terrible defeat from the Seljuk Turks at Myriokephalos. Nureddin took possession of the lands lying to the northeast of Antioch, took Damascus and became a close and extremely dangerous neighbor for the crusaders. His commander Shirku (of Kurdish origin) established himself in Egypt. The crusaders were surrounded by enemies as if in a ring. After Shirku's death, the title of vizier and power over Egypt passed to his famous nephew Saladin, son of Eyyub.

2.3 Third Crusade 1189 -1192

It began after the Egyptian Sultan Salah ad-din (Saladin) conquered Jerusalem. The campaign was led by the German Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, the French King Philip II and the English King Richard I the Lionheart. On June 10, 1190, Frederick Barbarossa fell from his horse while crossing a river and choked. His death became a harbinger (and perhaps the cause) of a future defeat. The victories of Richard the Lionheart extended the existence of the crusader states in Palestine, but Jerusalem could not be returned. However, as a result of the peace agreement, Christian pilgrims were given free access to Jerusalem.

In March 1190, Frederick's troops crossed into Asia, moved to the southeast and with difficulty made their way through all of Asia Minor. When crossing the river. Salef the Emperor drowned. Part of his army dispersed, many died, the rest came to Antioch, and then to Akka. In the spring of 1191 the kings of France (Philip II Augustus) and England (Richard the Lionheart) and Duke Leopold of Austria arrived. On the way, Richard the Lionheart defeated the Emperor of Cyprus, Isaac Comnenus, who was forced to surrender; he was imprisoned in a Syrian castle, where he was kept until death, and Cyprus fell into the power of the crusaders. The siege of Acre went poorly due to discord between the French and English kings, as well as between Guido of Lusignan and Margrave Conrad of Montferrat, who, after the death of Guido’s wife, declared a claim to the Jerusalem crown and married Elizabeth, sister and heir of the deceased Sibylla. Only on July 12, 1191, Akka surrendered after almost two years of siege. Conrad and Guido were reconciled after the capture of Akka; the first was recognized as Guido's heir and received Tire, Beirut and Sidon. Soon after this, Philip II sailed home with part of the French knights, but Hugo of Burgundy, Henry of Champagne and many other noble crusaders remained in Syria. And after the capture of Akka, the crusaders acted sluggishly and did not dare to decisively attack Jerusalem, although they made weak attempts to do so. Finally, in September 1192, a truce was concluded with Saladin: Jerusalem remained in the power of the Muslims, Christians were only allowed to visit St. city. After this, King Richard sailed to Europe. A circumstance that somewhat eased the position of the crusaders was the death of Saladin in March 1193: the division of his possessions between his many sons became a source of civil strife among Muslims. Soon, however, Saladin's brother, Almelik-Aladil (El-Melik-el-Adil), advanced, who took possession of Egypt, southern Syria and Mesopotamia and took the title of Sultan. After the failure of the third crusade, Emperor Henry VI began to gather in the Holy Land, who accepted the cross in May 1195; but he died in September 1197. Some of the crusading detachments that had set out earlier nevertheless arrived in Akka. Somewhat earlier than the emperor, Henry of Champagne died, who was married to the widow of Conrad of Montferrat and therefore wore the Jerusalem crown. Amalrich of Cyprus (brother of Guido of Lusignan), who married Henry's widow, was now chosen as king. Meanwhile, military operations in Syria were unsuccessful; a significant part of the crusaders returned to their homeland. Around this time, the German hospital brotherhood of St. Mary, founded during the 3rd Crusade, was transformed into a Teutonic spiritual-knightly order.

Salah ad-din (Saladin)

Ruler of Egypt from 1171, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. Kurdish by origin. The son of Ayyub ibn Shadi, one of the military leaders of the Syrian Sultan Nur ad-din, who successfully fought the crusaders. In 1164-69 he took part in military campaigns against Egypt. In 1169 he was appointed vizier of Egypt, and in 1171, after the death of the last caliph of the Fatimid dynasty, he seized power in Egypt and proclaimed the suzerainty of the Abbasids, receiving from them the title of sultan in 1174. After the death of Nur ad-din in 1174-86, he subjugated his Syrian possessions and some possessions of small Iraqi rulers. On July 3-4, 1187, Saladin's army defeated the crusaders near Hittin (Palestine), took Jerusalem on October 2, 1187, and then expelled the crusaders from most of Syria and Palestine. Salah ad-din's domestic policy was characterized by the development of the military system and some reduction in taxes.

2.4 Fourth Crusade 1201 -1204

Organized for a campaign against Egypt - the basis of Arab power. Victory in Egypt could rid the Holy Land of the Muslim threat. However, Venice took advantage of the situation to send the crusaders not to Egypt, but to Byzantium. Venice needed this because they had established strong trade ties with Egypt and its devastation by the crusaders would have brought losses to Venice. When the knights were transported by Venetian ships, they were invited to go to Constantinople (the capital of Byzantium), the knights had long dreamed of getting to the riches of which - they were angry that this city was so rich, and its inhabitants considered themselves descendants of the Great Roman Empire. The siege of Constantinople lasted for a long time. In 1204, the crusaders led by Boniface of Montferrat and Enrico Dandolo took Constantinople, and the European territories of the Byzantine Empire were divided between European feudal lords into several states: Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, Jerusalem. In its place arose the Latin Empire, which lasted until 1261, when the Greeks regained Constantinople.

As a result, instead of getting rid of the Muslim threat, this crusade was a catalyst for the expansion of Muslim influence in the Mediterranean, since Byzantium was the strongest deterrent against the Saracens.

During the storming of Constantinople, the greatest values of world culture were irretrievably destroyed or lost, since since the fall of the Roman Empire, it was Constantinople that was the only link between ancient culture and modernity, and subsequently the main cultural center of Christianity.

Despite the colossal negative consequences caused by this crusade; it was a very logical step from the point of view of the organizers, since the destruction of Byzantium was very beneficial for Venice and Rome, both politically and economically, and, no less important, from a spiritual point of view (since Orthodoxy, professed for centuries in Byzantium, argued about the inconsistency of Catholic dogma concerning the temporal and spiritual power of the Pope with the spirit and dogmas of true Christianity).

On April 12, 1204, the crusaders took Constantinople, and many art monuments were destroyed. Alexei V and Theodore Lascaris, son-in-law of Alexei III, fled (the latter to Nicaea, where he established himself), and the victors formed the Latin Empire. For Syria, the immediate consequence of this event was the distraction of Western knights from there. In addition, the power of the Franks in Syria was weakened by the struggle between Bohemond of Antioch and Leo of Armenia.

2.5 Fifth Crusade 1217-1221

Pursued the goal - an attack on Egypt. The Austrian Duke Leopold VI and the Hungarian King Andras II took part in the campaign, but Frederick II, the grandson of Barbarossa, could not take part, which apparently had fatal consequences for the enterprise. The Muslims were alarmed by the crusaders' preparations and entered into negotiations, offering to give up Jerusalem. But their very lucrative offers were rejected. Soon the crusaders became victims of the ambitions of their leaders and the waters of the Nile, which overflowed its banks and flooded their camp.

The work of Innocent III (died in July 1216) was continued by Honorius III. Although Frederick II postponed the Campaign and John of England died, in 1217 significant detachments of crusaders set out for the Holy Land, led by Andrew of Hungary, Duke Leopold VI of Austria and Otto of Meran. Military operations were sluggish, and in 1218 King Andrew returned home. Soon, new detachments of crusaders arrived in the Holy Land, led by George of Vidsky and William of Holland (on the way, some of them helped Christians in the fight against the Moors in Portugal). The Crusaders decided to attack Egypt, which at that time was the main center of Muslim power in Western Asia. The Europeans were offered an extremely profitable peace: the return of Jerusalem to Christians. But this proposal was rejected by the crusaders. In November 1219, after more than a year of siege, the Crusaders took Damietta. The removal of Leopold and King John of Brienne from the crusaders' camp was partly compensated for by the arrival of Louis of Bavaria with the Germans in Egypt. Some of the crusaders, convinced by the papal envoy Pelagius, moved towards Mansura, but the campaign ended in complete failure, and the crusaders concluded a peace with Alkamil in 1221, according to which they received a free retreat, but pledged to cleanse Damietta and Egnpet in general. Meanwhile, Isabella, daughter of Maria Iolanta and John of Brienne, married Frederick II Hohenstaufen. He pledged to the pope to begin the sixth crusade of 1228-1229, which is also known as the crusade of Emperor Frederick

2.6 Sixth Crusade 1228-1229

It was led by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, grandson of Barbarossa, who was critical of religion and called Christ, Moses and Mohammed the three great deceivers. He preferred to believe only in what could be proven by common sense and the logic of things. Frederick achieved his goal not by war, but by diplomacy: he managed to come to an agreement with the Muslims and conclude an agreement under which they gave him Jerusalem, since they did not want to fight the crusaders in the face of a new formidable enemy - the Tatar-Mongols. But success was relative: in 1244, the Muslims again captured Jerusalem.

2.7 First Crusade of St. Louis (Seventh Crusade) 1248-1254

Organized and headed by King Louis IX of France (1215-1270). The situation in the Holy Land was critical, the crusader states in Palestine were hanging by a thread. In August 1248, he went to Egypt at the head of a fleet of hundreds of ships with 35,000 troops. His goal was simple: to land in Egypt, capture the main cities of the country and then exchange them for the territories captured by the Muslims in the Holy Land. At first he was successful. Having captured the fortified port city of Damietta, he launched an attack on Cairo. But the Nile flooded, stopping the movement of the army for several months. In addition, the path to Cairo was blocked by the powerful fortress of Al-Mansur, standing on a narrow peninsula near the wide branch of the Nile. The months-long siege of the fortress ended in disaster. The Muslims defeated the crusaders, burned the fleet that supplied them with food, and in addition, a pestilence epidemic began in the crusaders' camp, as the waters of the Nile carried past thousands of bloated corpses. The cause died, and Louis, himself infected with the disease, had to retreat to Damietta, but was captured along with the pitiful remnants of his army, from which he had to pay a huge ransom to be released.

In the summer of 1249, the king landed in Egypt. The Christians occupied Damietta and reached Mansoura in December. In February of the following year, Robert, recklessly bursting into this city, died; a few days later the Muslims nearly took the Christian camp. When the new Sultan Eyyub (died at the end of 1249) arrived in Mansura, the Egyptians cut off the retreat of the crusaders; famine broke out in the Christian camp. In April, the Muslims inflicted a complete defeat on the crusaders; the king himself was captured and bought his freedom by returning Damietta and paying a huge sum. Most of the crusaders returned to their homeland; Louis stayed in the Holy Land for another four years, but could not achieve any serious results. Among Christians, despite the extremely dangerous situation, endless strife continued: the Templars were at enmity with the Johannites, the Genoese with the Venetians and Pisans (due to trade rivalry).

Conclusion

By the end of the 15th century. The decline of knightly ideology and chivalry began. Then gunpowder was invented. At first it was used only to blow up the walls of fortresses. As a result, the mighty knightly castles were no longer invulnerable. Then the use of gunpowder led to a change in methods of war and to a decrease in the role of cavalry. Chivalry ceases to play an important role in the life of society. At the same time, knightly ideology also declines.

However, for many centuries, chivalry was an important ideal of life in medieval society, and the knightly lifestyle and style of behavior was the most important moral standard of the medieval aristocracy. Chivalry, like other classes, was a necessary element of medieval society, providing stability to the social structure in which the “fighters” were as important as the “prayers” or “workers.”

List of sources

1.www.withhistory.com

2. encyclopedic dictionary of historian - M.: Pedagogika-Press, 1999.

3. History of the Templar Order, Marion Melville, "Eurasia", St. Petersburg 2000

4.www.northrp.net

Crusades

Crusader states 1100

Reasons and reason for the Crusades

Palestine, which belonged to Byzantium, was conquered by the Arabs in 637. It has become a place of pilgrimage for both Christians and Muslims. The situation changed with the arrival of the Seljuk Turks. In 1071 they interrupted the pilgrimage routes. The Byzantine emperor Alexei Komnenos in 1095 turned to the West for help. This became the reason for organizing the trip.

The reasons that prompted people to participate in a dangerous event were:

the desire of the Catholic Church to spread influence in the East and increase wealth;
the desire of monarchs and nobles to expand territories;
peasant hopes for land and freedom;
the desire of merchants to establish new trade relations with the countries of the East;
religious upsurge.

In 1095, at the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II called for the liberation of the holy lands from the yoke of the Saracens (Arabs and Seljuk Turks). Many knights immediately accepted the cross and proclaimed themselves warlike pilgrims. Later, the leaders of the campaign were determined.

Rice. 1. Pope Urban II's call to the crusaders.

Participants of the Crusades

In the crusades, a group of main participants can be distinguished:

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large feudal lords;
minor European knights;
merchants;
tradesmen;
peasants.

The name “crusades” comes from images of the cross sewn onto the clothes of participants.

The first echelon of the crusaders was made up of the poor, led by the preacher Peter of Amiens. In 1096 they arrived in Constantinople and, without waiting for the knights, crossed over to Asia Minor. The consequences were sad. The Turks easily defeated the poorly armed and untrained peasant militia.

Beginning of the Crusades

There were several crusades aimed at Muslim countries. The crusaders set out for the first time in the summer of 1096. In the spring of 1097 they crossed to Asia Minor and captured Nicaea, Antioch, and Edessa. In July 1099, the crusaders entered Jerusalem, carrying out a brutal massacre of Muslims here.

Europeans created their own states on the occupied lands. By the 30s. XII century The crusaders lost several cities and territories. The King of Jerusalem turned to the Pope for help, and he called on the European monarchs for a new crusade.

Main hikes

The table “Crusades” will help in systematizing information.

*Hike*	*Participants and organizers*	*Main goals and results*
1st Crusade (1096 – 1099)	Organizer: Pope Urban II. Knights from France, Germany, Italy	The desire of the popes to extend their power to new countries, the desire of Western feudal lords to acquire new possessions and increase income. Liberation of Nicaea (1097), capture of Edessa (1098), capture of Jerusalem (1099). Creation of the State of Tripoli, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Edessa, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem
2nd Crusade (1147 – 1149)	Led by Louis VII, French and German Emperor Conrad III	Loss of Edessa by the Crusaders (1144). Complete failure of the crusaders
3rd Crusade (1189 – 1192)	Led by the German Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, the French King Philip II Augustus and the English King Richard I the Lionheart	The purpose of the campaign is to return Jerusalem, captured by Muslims. failed.
4th Crusade (1202 – 1204)	Organizer: Pope Innocent III. French, Italian, German feudal lords	The brutal sack of Christian Constantinople. The collapse of the Byzantine Empire: Greek states - the Kingdom of Epirus, the Nicaean and Trebizond empires. The Crusaders created the Latin Empire
Children's (1212)		Thousands of children died or were sold into slavery
5th Crusade (1217 – 1221)	Duke Leopold VI of Austria, King Andras II of Hungary, and others	A campaign was organized in Palestine and Egypt. The offensive in Egypt and in the negotiations on Jerusalem failed due to the lack of unity in leadership.
6th Crusade (1228 – 1229)	German king and Roman Emperor Frederick II Staufen	On March 18, 1229, Jerusalem was the result of a treaty with the Egyptian Sultan, but in 1244 the city again passed to the Muslims.
7th Crusade (1248 – 1254)	French King Louis IX Saint.	March on Egypt. The defeat of the crusaders, the capture of the king, followed by a ransom and return home.
8th Crusade (1270-1291)	Mongol troops	The last and unsuccessful one. The knights lost all their possessions in the East, except for Fr. Cyprus. The devastation of the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean

Rice. 2. Crusaders.

The second campaign took place in 1147-1149. It was led by the German Emperor Conrad III Staufen and the French King Louis VII. In 1187, Sultan Saladin defeated the crusaders and captured Jerusalem, which the King of France Philip II Augustus, the King of Germany Frederick I Barbarossa and the King of England Richard I the Lionheart went on a third campaign to recapture.

The fourth was organized against Orthodox Byzantium. In 1204, the crusaders mercilessly plundered Constantinople, massacring Christians. In 1212, 50 thousand children were sent to Palestine from France and Germany. Most of them became slaves or died. In history, the adventure is known as the Children's Crusade.

After the report to the Pope on the fight against the Cathar heresy in the Languedoc region, a series of military campaigns took place from 1209 to 1229. This is the Albigensian or Cathar Crusade.

The fifth (1217-1221) was a great failure for the Hungarian king Endre II. In the sixth (1228-1229) the cities of Palestine were handed over to the crusaders, but already in 1244 they lost Jerusalem for the second time and finally. To save those who remained there, a seventh campaign was proclaimed. The crusaders were defeated, and the French king Louis IX was captured, where he remained until 1254. In 1270, he led the eighth - the last and extremely unsuccessful crusade, the stage of which from 1271 to 1272 is called the ninth.

Crusades of Rus'

The ideas of the Crusades also penetrated into the territory of Rus'. One of the directions of the foreign policy of its princes is wars with unbaptized neighbors. The campaign of Vladimir Monomakh in 1111 against the Polovtsians, who often attacked Rus', was called a crusade. In the 13th century, the princes fought with the Baltic tribes and the Mongols.

Consequences of the hikes

The crusaders divided the conquered lands into several states:

Kingdom of Jerusalem;
Kingdom of Antioch;
Edessa County;
County of Tripoli.

In the states, the crusaders established feudal orders modeled on Europe. To protect their possessions in the east, they built castles and founded spiritual knightly orders:

Hospitallers;
Templars;
Teutons.

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The Crusades mark the beginning of the end of the Middle Ages. They marked the completion of the development of Christian civilization. This was the greatest surge of medieval Christian energy, after which came the internal crisis of Christianity. This is the end of medieval universalism, the desire to build a great Christian state. The Crusades revealed the unrealizability of this idea, its decomposition, the collapse of the union of the church and the world, and attempts to extend this synthesis to the entire universe. Having failed, civilization dissolves its alliance with the church.

In addition, the Crusaders encountered the Muslim world. This was a test of the confidence that only Christians are genuine people, that only the Christian Western European order of the world is natural and has the right to exist. They were faced with the fact that outside the Christian world there are normal people filled with even greater virtues than Christians themselves. This clash with the culture and morality of the Muslim world was a test for realizing the exclusivity of the Western world. Medieval Europe perceived itself as the norm, which should become the norm for all humanity. It turned out that there is some other norm that also has a right to exist.

The Crusades contributed to the accumulation of semi-Pelagian medieval ideas that one could redeem salvation from God, deliverance from His wrath, from purgatory through good deeds - it received a powerful centuries-old pan-European motivation. It contributed to the consolidation of the ugly soteriological concepts of Western theology.

The flood of all kinds of relics and holy relics became fruitful, and on the other hand, disastrous for Europe. This contributed to the magical perception of the shrine, which was reflected in the acceptance of the Sacrament as a force acting independently of the readiness to accept this shrine, the magical idea of the Christian Sacraments.

The Crusades were of great importance for political changes in Western Europe, which would prove critical in the disintegration of medieval universalism. The Crusades ensured the outflow of feudal knights to the Holy Land, a good half of whom did not return to Europe. There was an outflow of bearers of feudal consciousness from Europe. The feudal class and its power during the era of the Crusades were significantly destroyed. Medieval universalism was possible only in the conditions of a feudal society, since only in the conditions of feudal fragmentation was the existence of such a pan-European consciousness possible. On the one hand, there was a pan-European church, on the other, a kind of pan-European Christian state entity. With the destruction of the feudal class, feudal fragmentation weakened and national states emerged. The unification of national states in the name of a common Christian state was already less possible than the unification of feudal lords. The formation of a national state came into conflict with the idea of universalism, since the interests of one’s own national state were more significant than the interests of a certain “world state.”

The most fatal result of the Crusades was the weakening of Eastern Christianity. The fall of Constantinople and its capture by the Crusaders became a prelude to its capture by the Turks. After the attack by Western Christians, the Byzantines were no longer able to fully recover. This religious and political antagonism had already become irreconcilable, and there could now be no talk of unity with Western Christians. Before the fourth crusade there was still communication, after which the consciousness of communication was no longer possible. The most important spiritual process of this time is that at the beginning of the second millennium, the Western Christian tradition had already separated from Eastern Christianity, from the heritage of the Universal Church. The formation of a Western, German type of religious consciousness is taking place.

The Crusades were a failure, and therefore did not solve any of the long-term problems facing medieval Europe. Nevertheless, they had a significant influence on its further development. They made it possible for a certain period to ease demographic, social and political tensions in Western Europe. This contributed to the strengthening of royal power and the creation of national centralized states in France and England.

The Crusades led to a temporary strengthening of the Catholic Church: it significantly strengthened its financial position, expanded its sphere of influence, and created new military-religious institutions - orders that played an important role in subsequent European history (Johannites in the defense of the Mediterranean from the Turks, the Teutons in German aggression in Baltic). The Papacy confirmed its status as the leader of Western Christendom.

At the same time, they made the gap between Catholicism and Orthodoxy insurmountable, deepened the confrontation between Christianity and Islam, and exacerbated the intolerance of Europeans towards any form of religious dissent.

It was previously believed that the Crusades significantly enriched the European food flora, gave impetus to the development of production technologies and led to the expansion of cultural potential through borrowings from the East. Recent research, however, does not support such claims.

At the same time, the Crusades did not pass without leaving a mark on the Western economy and culture. The robbery of overseas countries became a catalyst for property stratification and the progress of commodity-money relations. The economic power of the Italian trading republics increased, making huge profits through freight and significantly strengthening their commercial positions in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea, seriously displacing the Arabs and Byzantines.

The Crusades contributed to the social mobility of Europeans, overcoming their fear of the unknown; psychologically, they prepared the Great Geographical Discoveries.

And finally, the crusader movement and the crusader spirit were reflected in medieval literature (chivalrous romance, troubadour poetry, historical writing). Among the most significant works are the historiographical and biographical works of William of Tire, Geoffroy de Villehardouin, Robert de Clary and Jean de Joinville, the poems Song of Antioch and the History of the Holy War.

According to J. Le Goff, the Crusades turned out to be “the pinnacle of expansionism of the medieval Christian world,” “the first experience of European colonialism.”

In view of the unspeakably heavy losses suffered during the Crusades, and the incalculable number of Christians who died, as well as in view of the complete discrepancy between the results and the intended goals, it is difficult to say whether the enormous sacrifices and losses are balanced by the benefits that medieval society derived from its acquaintance with the East. Above we cited the opinions of researchers who point to a relatively high Arab culture in the 11th century. and on borrowings learned from the Arabs and transferred to Europe; attribute great importance to the remains of ancient culture in the Greek lands, forms of life in the East alien to Europeans, and find numerous borrowings by Europeans in household items, in terms of trade, and industry; finally, they pay attention to changes in the social life of Europeans after the Crusades (the development of urban freedom, protest against the absolutism of the Roman Church) and try to put all this on the parish and consider it as a direct result of the Crusades. According to F.I. Uspensky, benefits are immeasurably lower than losses and damages.

Thus, the influence of the Crusades on the progress of medieval society is subject to significant fluctuations if we take into account the natural process of evolution, which, even without the Crusades, could lead medieval peoples to success on the path of political development and emancipation. Regardless, the period of the Crusades left Western Europe with a heavy burden in the Eastern Question, which requires new sacrifices from it and serves as an obstacle to its further successes on the path of development.

conquered crusader latin campaign

Crusades

Beginning in the 8th century. in Spain, the Reconquista from the 11th century gradually assimilated with the Crusades. During this war, in 1212, a decisive victory was won at the Battle of Tortosa. The crusades were organized by papal authority under the banner of supporting the church in the Holy Land (in Palestine), but also in France (the fight against the Cathars), in the Baltic countries, etc. As soon as the pope announced the start of the crusade, those who took part in it participation, holding a cross in their hands, they took a vow of fidelity, the violation of which was punishable as an oath. In exchange for the obligation to participate in the campaign, the church provided the crusaders with protection, expressed in the protection of their property and in the prohibition of demanding repayment of debts during their absence under pain of punishment from the church (for example, excommunication). In addition, the indulgence given to the crusaders promised forgiveness of their sins and, therefore, a heavenly life after death. At the moment of leaving for the campaign, the crusader received the blessing of the pilgrim. The troops were accompanied by papal legates and preachers, who monitored the observance of the religious motives of the campaigns and carried out rites of repentance.

Peter the Hermit calls for a crusade

France actively participated in the Crusades. The first campaign was proclaimed by Pope Urban II at a church council in Clermont (France) in 1095, although, being excommunicated due to their marital relations, condemned by the clergy, neither of the sovereigns took part in it. The crusading movement was started by Peter the Hermit (Amiens), who led the largest campaign of the poor that went to the East and was characterized by pogroms on the way to the Holy Land. The crusaders who reached Constantinople then failed and were exterminated by the Turks. Later, simple knights and lords, who formed the backbone of the troops, captured Jerusalem. As a result of the victory, the first two Latin principalities in the East were formed: the County of Edessa and the Principality of Antioch in 1098. The County of Edessa disappeared in 1144, while the Principality of Antioch existed until 1268. In 1099, Jerusalem was founded by Godfrey of Bouillon kingdom, and in 1102 the Count of Toulouse formed the County of Tripoli, which lasted until 1289. After the Muslim capture of the holy city in 1244, the Kingdom of Jerusalem was transformed into the small state of Acre, the last Christian bastion, which fell in 1291. French barons actively participated in the formation and management of Latin states in the East, introducing a feudal system of relationships.

The Second Crusade, which included the European sovereigns Louis VII and Emperor Conrad III, was declared by Saint Bernard at Vézelay. The capture of Jerusalem in 1187 by Salah ad-Din triggered the third crusade. The Pope once again addressed the sovereigns: Philip Augustus, Richard the Lionheart and Frederick Barbarossa set off on a dangerous armed pilgrimage, during which the German emperor died and Richard the Lionheart was captured. The Fourth Crusade was initially directed against Egypt, but troops subsequently headed to Constantinople to place Alexius IV's father Isaac on the throne. As a result of the defeat and plunder of the city (April 12–13, 1204), the crusaders founded the ephemeral Latin Empire (1204–1261) on its ruins.

Statue of Godfrey of Bouillon

The contradictions that arose within the Latin states in the East and the pressure of the sultanates (in particular, Egypt in the 13th century) led to the final fall of Jerusalem in 1244. Saint Louis led the seventh and eighth crusades, which suffered bloody defeats: the defeat of the crusaders under Mansur in 1250. , then the death of the king near Tunisia in 1270, and with the fall of Acre in 1291, the crusaders, having completely lost their possessions in the Middle East, were forced to abandon waging wars of conquest.

From the book History of the Middle Ages, told to children by Le Goff Jacques

CRUSADES - Isn’t it true that the Crusades were the same mistake, the same inglorious and condemnable episode? - Yes, today this is a common opinion, and I share it. Jesus and the New Testament (Gospel) teach peaceful faith. Among the first Christians, many

author

§ 14. Crusades Reasons and goals of the crusading movement On November 26, 1095, Pope Urban II spoke in front of a large crowd in the city of Clermont. He told the audience that the Holy Land (as Palestine was called in the Middle Ages with its main shrine - the Tomb

author Team of authors

CRUSADES REASONS AND BACKGROUND OF THE CRUSADES According to the traditional definition, the Crusades are understood as military-religious expeditions of Christians undertaken from the end of the 11th century. with the aim of liberating the Holy Sepulcher and other Christian shrines

From the book World History: in 6 volumes. Volume 2: Medieval civilizations of the West and East author Team of authors

CRUSADES Bliznyuk S.V. Crusaders of the late Middle Ages. M., 1999. Zaborov M.A. Crusaders in the East. M., 1980. Karpov S.P. Latin Romania. St. Petersburg, 2000. Luchitskaya S.I. The Image of the Other: Muslims in the Chronicles of the Crusades. M., 2001. Alpandery R, Dupront A. La chretiente et G idee des croisades. P., 1995. Ballard M.

From the book Europe and Islam: A History of Misunderstanding by Cardini Franco

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From the book Volume 1. Diplomacy from ancient times to 1872. author Potemkin Vladimir Petrovich

Crusades. At the end of the 11th century, papal diplomacy was able to take advantage of the widespread movement to the East that began in the West - the Crusades. The Crusades were directed by the interests of very diverse groups of Western European feudal

From the book History of Cavalry [with illustrations] author Denison George Taylor

1. The Crusades At the end of the 11th century, when chivalry was already a firmly established institution, an event occurred in Europe that was reflected in history for many years both in this part of the world and in Asia. We have already talked about the close connection between religion and chivalry and about her big

From the book Kipchaks, Oguzes. Medieval history of the Turks and the Great Steppe by Aji Murad

The Crusades The Middle Ages are called the Dark Ages, and they really are. People will never know the whole truth about them. Catholics destroyed chronicles and books of those years. They have come up with thousands of ways to kill the truth. They accomplished the most incredible things. Here is one of her techniques. Church

From the book Underrated Events of History. Book of Historical Misconceptions by Stomma Ludwig

Crusades In 1042, Ed (Odo) de Lagerie was born in Châtillon-sur-Marne, at the foot of the Champagne hills, into a wealthy noble family. When he was twelve, his father sent his son to the cathedral school at nearby Reims, where his teacher was one of the minor founders

From the book World Military History in instructive and entertaining examples author Kovalevsky Nikolai Fedorovich

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From the book History of Religions. Volume 1 author Kryvelev Joseph Aronovich

CRUSADES (39) The Crusades constituted an era not only and not even so much in the history of religion as in general civil history. Being formally religious wars, the goal of which was considered to be the capture of the main shrine of Christianity - the “Holy Sepulchre”, in fact

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§ 19. Crusades Reasons and goals of the crusading movement On November 26, 1095, Pope Urban II spoke in front of a large crowd in the city of Clermont. He told the audience that the Holy Land (as Palestine was called in the Middle Ages) with its main shrine - the Tomb

From the book General History [Civilization. Modern concepts. Facts, events] author Dmitrieva Olga Vladimirovna

Crusades Crusades are a broad military-colonization movement to the East, in which Western European sovereigns, feudal lords, knighthood, part of the townspeople and peasantry took part. Traditionally, the era of the Crusades is considered to be the period from 1096

Despite the fact that the Crusades did not achieve their goal and ended in disaster, they created an entire era in European history and had a huge impact on many countries.

Byzantine Empire.

The Crusades were able to delay the Turkish conquest of Byzantium, but they were unable to prevent the fall of Constantinople in 1453. For a long time, the Byzantine Empire was in a state of decline. Its collapse is associated with the final appearance of the Turks in the political arena. The sack of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204 and the Venetian trade monopoly dealt the empire a mortal blow, from which it could not recover even after its revival in 1261.

Trade

Merchants and artisans who supplied the Crusader army with equipment, transport, and provisions benefited enormously from the Crusades. Also, many foreign cities enriched themselves due to the trade monopoly in the Mediterranean.

Italian merchants established trade relations with the Middle East, from where they exported various luxury goods to Western Europe - silks, spices, pearls, etc. The demand for these goods brought super profits and stimulated the search for new, shorter and safer routes to the East. Ultimately, this search led to the discovery of America. The Crusades also played an extremely important role in the emergence of the financial aristocracy and contributed to the development of capitalist relations in Italian cities.

Feudalism and the Church

Thousands of large feudal lords died in the Crusades, in addition, many noble families went bankrupt under the burden of debt. All these losses ultimately contributed to the centralization of power in Western European countries and the weakening of the system of feudal relations.

The impact of the Crusades on the authority of the church was controversial. If the first campaigns helped strengthen the authority of the Pope, who took on the role of spiritual leader in the holy war against Muslims, then the 4th Crusade discredited the power of the Pope even in the person of such an outstanding representative as Innocent III. Business interests often took precedence over religious considerations, forcing the crusaders to disregard papal prohibitions and enter into business and even friendly contacts with Muslims.

Culture

It was once generally accepted that it was the Crusades that brought Europe to the Renaissance, but now such an assessment seems overestimated to most historians. What they undoubtedly gave the man of the Middle Ages was a broader view of the world and a better understanding of its diversity.

The Crusades were widely reflected in literature. A countless number of poetic works were composed about the exploits of the crusaders in the Middle Ages, mostly in old French. Among them there are truly great works, such as the History of the Holy War, which describes the exploits of Richard the Lionheart, or the Song of Antioch, supposedly composed in Syria, dedicated to the 1st Crusade. New artistic material, born of the Crusades, penetrated into ancient legends. Thus, the early medieval cycles about Charlemagne and King Arthur were continued.

The Crusades also stimulated the development of historiography. Villehardouin's Conquest of Constantinople remains the most authoritative source for the study of the 4th Crusade. Many consider the best medieval work in the biography genre to be the biography of King Louis IX, created by Jean de Joinville. One of the most significant medieval chronicles was the book “History of Deeds in Overseas Lands” written in Latin by Archbishop William of Tire, which vividly and accurately recreates the history of the Kingdom of Jerusalem from 1144 to 1184.